cc65 Users Guide <author>Ullrich von Bassewitz, <htmlurl url="mailto:uz@cc65.org" name="uz@cc65.org"> <date>03.09.2000, 02.10.2001 <abstract> cc65 is a C compiler for 6502 targets. It supports several 6502 based home computers like the Commodore and Atari machines, but it is easily retargetable. </abstract>  <toc>  <sect>Overview cc65 was originally a C compiler for the Atari 8-bit machines written by John R. Dunning. In prior releases I've described the compiler by listing up the changes made by me. I have made many more changes in the meantime (and rewritten major parts of the compiler), so I will no longer do that, since the list would be too large and of no use to anyone. Instead I will describe the compiler in respect to the ANSI/ISO C standard. In fact, I'm planning a complete rewrite (that is, a complete new compiler) for the next release, since there are too many limitations in the current code, and removing these limitations would mean a rewrite of many more parts of the compiler. There is a separate document named "library.txt" that covers the library available for the compiler. If you know C and are interested in doing actual programming, the library documentation is probably of much more use than this document. If you need some hints for getting the best code out of the compiler, you may have a look at "coding.txt" which covers some code generation issues. <sect>Usage The compiler translates C files into files containing assembler code that may be translated by the ca65 macroassembler (for more information about the assembler, have a look at ca65.txt). <sect1>Command line option overview The compiler may be called as follows: <tscreen><verb> --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Usage: cc65 [options] file Short options: -A Strict ANSI mode -Cl Make local variables static -Dsym[=defn] Define a symbol -I dir Set an include directory search path -O Optimize code -Oi Optimize code, inline more code -Or Enable register variables -Os Inline some known functions -T Include source as comment -V Print the compiler version number -W Suppress warnings -d Debug mode -g Add debug info to object file -h Help (this text) -j Default characters are signed -o name Name the output file -t sys Set the target system -v Increase verbosity Long options: --add-source Include source as comment --ansi Strict ANSI mode --bss-name seg Set the name of the BSS segment --check-stack Generate stack overflow checks --code-name seg Set the name of the CODE segment --codesize x Accept larger code by factor x --cpu type Set cpu type --create-dep Create a make dependency file --data-name seg Set the name of the DATA segment --debug Debug mode --debug-info Add debug info to object file --help Help (this text) --include-dir dir Set an include directory search path --rodata-name seg Set the name of the RODATA segment --signed-chars Default characters are signed --static-locals Make local variables static --target sys Set the target system --verbose Increase verbosity --version Print the compiler version number --------------------------------------------------------------------------- </verb></tscreen> <sect1>Command line options in detail Here is a description of all the command line options: <descrip> <label id="option-A"> <tag><tt>-A, --ansi</tt></tag> This option disables any compiler exensions. Have a look at section 5 for a discussion of compiler extensions. In addition, the macro <tt/__STRICT_ANSI__/ is defined, when using one of these options. <tag><tt>--bss-name seg</tt></tag> Set the name of the bss segment. <tag><tt>--check-stack</tt></tag> Tells the compiler to generate code that checks for stack overflows. See <tt><ref id="pragma-checkstack" name="#pragma checkstack"></tt> for an explanation of this feature. <tag><tt>--code-name seg</tt></tag> Set the name of the code segment. <tag><tt>--codesize x</tt></tag> This options allows finer control about speed vs. size decisions in the code generation phase. It gives the allowed size increase factor (in percent). The default is 100 when not using <tt/-Oi/ and 200 when using <tt/-Oi/ (<tt/-Oi/ is the same as <tt/--codesize 200/). <tag><tt>--cpu CPU</tt></tag> A new, still experimental option. You may specify "6502" or "65C02" as the CPU. 6502 is the default, so this will not change anything. Specifying 65C02 will use a few 65C02 instructions when generating code. Don't expect too much from this option: It is still new (and may have bugs), and the additional instructions for the 65C02 are not that overwhelming. <tag><tt>--create-dep</tt></tag> Tells the compiler to generate a file containing the dependency list for the compiled module in makefile syntax. The file is named as the C input file with the extension replaced by <tt/.u/. <tag><tt>-d, --debug</tt></tag> Enables debug mode, something that should not be needed for mere mortals:-) <tag><tt>-D sym[=definition]</tt></tag> Define a macro on the command line. If no definition is given, the macro is defined to the value "1". <tag><tt>-g, --debug-info</tt></tag> This will cause the compiler to insert a <tt/.DEBUGINFO/ command into the generated assembler code. This will cause the assembler to include all symbols in a special section in the object file. <tag><tt>-h, --help</tt></tag> Print the short option summary shown above. <tag><tt>--rodata-name seg</tt></tag> Set the name of the rodata segment (the segment used for readonly data). <tag><tt>-j, --signed-chars</tt></tag> Using this option, you can make the default characters signed. Since the 6502 has no provisions for sign extending characters (which is needed on almost any load operation), this will make the code larger and slower. A better way is to declare characters explicitly as "signed" if needed. You can also use <tt><ref id="pragma-signedchars" name="#pragma signedchars"></tt> for better control of this option. <tag><tt>-t target, --target target</tt></tag> This option is used to set the target system. The target system determines things like the character set that is used for strings and character constants. The following target systems are supported: <itemize> <item>none <item>atari <item>c64 <item>c128 <item>plus4 <item>cbm510 (CBM-II series with 40 column video) <item>cbm610 (all CBM-II II computers with 80 column video) <item>pet (all CBM PET systems except the 2001) <item>apple2 <item>geos </itemize> <tag><tt>-v, --verbose</tt></tag> Using this option, the compiler will be somewhat more verbose if errors or warnings are encountered. <tag><tt>-Cl, --static-locals</tt></tag> Use static storage for local variables instead of storage on the stack. Since the stack is emulated in software, this gives shorter and usually faster code, but the code is no longer reentrant. The difference between <tt/-Cl/ and declaring local variables as static yourself is, that initializer code is executed each time, the function is entered. So when using <tscreen><verb> void f (void) { unsigned a = 1; ... } </verb></tscreen> the variable a will always have the value 1 when entering the function and using <tt/-Cl/, while in <tscreen><verb> void f (void) { static unsigned a = 1; .... } </verb></tscreen> the variable a will have the value 1 only the first time, the function is entered, and will keep the old value from one call of the function to the next. You may also use <tt><ref id="pragma-staticlocals" name="#pragma staticlocals"></tt> to change this setting in your sources. <tag><tt>-I dir, --include-dir dir</tt></tag> Set a directory where the compiler searches for include files. You may use this option multiple times to add more than one directory to the search list. <tag><tt>-o name</tt></tag> Specify the name of the output file. If you don't specify a name, the name of the C input file is used, with the extension replaced by ".s". <tag><tt>-O, -Oi, -Or, -Os</tt></tag> Enable an optimizer run over the produced code. Using <tt/-Oi/, the code generator will inline some code where otherwise a runtime functions would have been called, even if the generated code is larger. This will not only remove the overhead for a function call, but will make the code visible for the optimizer. <tt/-Oi/ is an alias for <tt/--codesize 200/. <tt/-Or/ will make the compiler honor the <tt/register/ keyword. Local variables may be placed in registers (which are actually zero page locations). There is some overhead involved with register variables, since the old contents of the registers must be saved and restored. In addition, the current implementation does not make good use of register variables, so using <tt/-Or/ may make your program even slower and larger. Use with care! Using <tt/-Os/ will force the compiler to inline some known functions from the C library like strlen. Note: This has two consequences: <itemize> <item>You may not use names of standard C functions in your own code. If you do that, your program is not standard compliant anyway, but using <tt/-Os/ will actually break things. <item>The inlined string and memory functions will not handle strings or memory areas larger than 255 bytes. Similar, the inlined <tt/is..()/ functions will not work with values outside char range. </itemize> It is possible to concatenate the modifiers for <tt/-O/. For example, to enable register variables and inlining of known functions, you may use <tt/-Ors/. <tag><tt>-T, --add-source</tt></tag> This include the source code as comments in the generated code. This is normally not needed. <tag><tt>-V, --version</tt></tag> Print the version number of the compiler. When submitting a bug report, please include the operating system you're using, and the compiler version. <tag><tt>-W</tt></tag> This option will suppress any warnings generated by the compiler. Since any source file may be written in a manner that it will not produce compiler warnings, using this option is usually not a good idea. </descrip> <sect>Input and output The compiler will accept one C file per invocation and create a file with the same base name, but with the extension replaced by ".s". The output file contains assembler code suitable for the use with the ca65 macro assembler. In addition to the paths named in the <tt/-I/ option on the command line, the directory named in the environment variable <tt/CC65_INC/ is added to the search path for include files on startup. <sect>Differences to the ISO standard Here is a list of differences between the language, the compiler accepts, and the one defined by the ISO standard: <itemize> <item> The compiler allows single line comments that start with //. This feature is disabled in strict ANSI mode. <item> The compiler allows unnamed parameters in parameter lists. The compiler will not issue warnings about unused parameters that don't have a name. This feature is disabled in strict ANSI mode. <item> The compiler has some additional keywords: <itemize> <item><tt/asm/ <item><tt/__asm__/ <item><tt/fastcall/ <item><tt/__fastcall__/ <item><tt/__AX__/ <item><tt/__EAX__/ <item><tt/__func__/ <item><tt/__attribute__/ </itemize> The keywords without the underlines are disabled in strict ANSI mode. <item> The datatypes "float" and "double" are not available. <item> The compiler does not support bit fields. <item> Because of the "wrong" order of the parameters on the stack, there is an additional macro needed to access parameters in a variable parameter list in a C function. <item> Functions may not return structs (or unions), and structs may not be passed as parameters by value. However, struct assignment *is* possible. <item> Part of the C library is available only with fastcall calling conventions (see below). This means, that you may not mix pointers to those functions with pointers to user written functions. </itemize> There may be some more minor differences, I'm currently not aware off. The biggest problem is the missing float data type. With this limitation in mind, you should be able to write fairly portable code. <sect>Extensions This cc65 version has some extensions to the ISO C standard. <itemize> <item> The compiler allows // comments (like in C++ and in the proposed C9x standard). This feature is disabled by <tt><ref id="option-A" name="-A"></tt>. <item> The compiler allows to insert assembler statements into the output file. The syntax is <tscreen><verb> asm (<string literal>[, optional parameters]) ; </verb></tscreen> or <tscreen><verb> __asm__ (<string literal>[, optional parameters]) ; </verb></tscreen> The first form is in the user namespace and is disabled if the <tt/-A/ switch is given. There is a whole section covering inline assembler statements, <ref id="inline-asm" name="see there">. <item> There is a special calling convention named "fastcall". This calling convention is currently only usable for functions written in assembler. The syntax for a function declaration using fastcall is <tscreen><verb> <return type> fastcall <function name> (<parameter list>) </verb></tscreen> or <tscreen><verb> <return type> __fastcall__ <function name> (<parameter list>) </verb></tscreen> An example would be <tscreen><verb> void __fastcall__ f (unsigned char c) </verb></tscreen> The first form of the fastcall keyword is in the user namespace and is therefore disabled in strict ANSI mode. For functions declared as <tt/fastcall/, the rightmost parameter is not pushed on the stack but left in the primary register when the function is called. This will reduce the cost when calling assembler functions significantly, especially when the function itself is rather small. <item> There are two pseudo variables named <tt/__AX__/ and <tt/__EAX__/. Both refer to the primary register that is used by the compiler to evaluate expressions or return function results. <tt/__AX__/ is of type <tt/unsigned int/ and <tt/__EAX__/ of type <tt/long unsigned int/ respectively. The pseudo variables may be used as lvalue and rvalue as every other variable. They are most useful together with short sequences of assembler code. For example, the macro <tscreen><verb> #define hi(x) (__AX__=(x),asm("\ttxa\n\tldx\t#$00",__AX__) </verb></tscreen> will give the high byte of any unsigned value. <item> Inside a function, the identifier <tt/__func__/ gives the name of the current function as a string. Outside of functions, <tt/__func__/ is undefined. Example: <tscreen><verb> #define PRINT_DEBUG(s) printf ("%s: %s\n", __func__, s); </verb></tscreen> The macro will print the name of the current function plus a given string. <item> cc65 allows the initialization of <tt/void/ variables. This may be used to create variable structures that are more compatible with interfaces written for assembler languages. Here is an example: <tscreen><verb> void GCmd = { (char)3, (unsigned)0x2000, (unsigned)0x3000 }; </verb></tscreen> This will be translated as follows: <tscreen><verb> _GCmd: .byte 3 .word $2000 .word $3000 </verb></tscreen> Since the variable is of type <tt/void/ you may not use it as is. However, taking the address of the variable results in a <tt/void*/ which may be passed to any function expecting a pointer. See the <htmlurl url="geos.html" name="GEOS library"> for examples on how to use this feature. </itemize> <sect>Predefined macros The compiler defines several macros at startup: <descrip> <tag><tt>__CC65__</tt></tag> This macro is always defined. Its value is the version number of the compiler in hex. Version 2.0.1 of the compiler will have this macro defined as 0x0201. <tag><tt>__CBM__</tt></tag> This macro is defined if the target system is one of the CBM targets. <tag><tt>__C64__</tt></tag> This macro is defined if the target is the c64 (-t c64). <tag><tt>__C128__</tt></tag> This macro is defined if the target is the c128 (-t c128). <tag><tt>__PLUS4__</tt></tag> This macro is defined if the target is the plus/4 (-t plus4). <tag><tt>__CBM510__</tt></tag> This macro is defined if the target is the CBM 500 series of computers. <tag><tt>__CBM610__</tt></tag> This macro is defined if the target is one of the CBM 600/700 family of computers (called B series in the US). <tag><tt>__PET__</tt></tag> This macro is defined if the target is the PET family of computers (-t pet). <tag><tt>__ATARI__</tt></tag> This macro is defined if the target is one of the Atari computers (400/800/130XL/800XL). <tag><tt>__APPLE2__</tt></tag> This macro is defined if the target is the Apple ][ (-t apple2). <tag><tt>__GEOS__</tt></tag> This macro is defined if you are compiling for the GEOS system (-t geos). <tag><tt>__FILE__</tt></tag> This macro expands to a string containing the name of the C source file. <tag><tt>__LINE__</tt></tag> This macro expands to the current line number. <tag><tt>__STRICT_ANSI__</tt></tag> This macro is defined to 1 if the <tt/-A/ compiler option was given, and undefined otherwise. <tag><tt>__OPT__</tt></tag> Is defined if the compiler was called with the <tt/-O/ command line option. <tag><tt>__OPT_i__</tt></tag> Is defined if the compiler was called with the <tt/-Oi/ command line option. <tag><tt>__OPT_r__</tt></tag> Is defined if the compiler was called with the <tt/-Or/ command line option. <tag><tt>__OPT_s__</tt></tag> Is defined if the compiler was called with the <tt/-Os/ command line option. </descrip> <sect>#pragmas<label id="pragmas"> The compiler understands some pragmas that may be used to change code generation and other stuff. <sect1><tt>#pragma bssseg (<name>)</tt> This pragma changes the name used for the BSS segment (the BSS segment is used to store uninitialized data). The argument is a string enclosed in double quotes. Note: The default linker configuration file does only map the standard segments. If you use other segments, you have to create a new linker configuration file. Beware: The startup code will zero only the default BSS segment. If you use another BSS segment, you have to do that yourself, otherwise uninitialized variables do not have the value zero. Example: <tscreen><verb> #pragma bssseg ("MyBSS") </verb></tscreen> <sect1><tt>#pragma charmap (<index>, <code>)</tt> Each literal string and each literal character in the source is translated by use of a translation table. This translation table is preset when the compiler is started depending on the target system, for example to map ISO-8859-1 characters into PETSCII if the target is a commodore machine. This pragma allows to change entries in the translation table, so the translation for individual characters, or even the complete table may be adjusted. Both arguments are assumed to be unsigned characters with a valid range of 1-255. Beware of two pitfalls: <itemize> <item>The character index is actually the code of the character in the C source, so character mappings do always depend on the source character set. This means that <tt/#pragma charmap/ is not portable - it depends on the build environment. <item>While it is possible to use character literals as indices, the result may be somewhat unexpected, since character literals are itself translated. For this reason I would suggest to avoid character literals and use numeric character codes instead. </itemize> Example: <tscreen><verb> /* Use a space wherever an 'a' occurs in ISO-8859-1 source */ #pragma charmap (0x61, 0x20); </verb></tscreen> <sect1><tt>#pragma checkstack (on|off)</tt><label id="pragma-checkstack"> Tells the compiler to insert calls to a stack checking subroutine to detect stack overflows. The stack checking code will lead to somewhat larger and slower programs, so you may want to use this pragma when debugging your program and switch it off for the release version. If a stack overflow is detected, the program is aborted. If the argument is "off", stack checks are disabled (the default), otherwise they're enabled. <sect1><tt>#pragma codeseg (<name>)</tt> This pragma changes the name used for the CODE segment (the CODE segment is used to store executable code). The argument is a string enclosed in double quotes. Note: The default linker configuration file does only map the standard segments. If you use other segments, you have to create a new linker configuration file. Example: <tscreen><verb> #pragma codeseg ("MyCODE") </verb></tscreen> <sect1><tt>#pragma dataseg (<name>)</tt> This pragma changes the name used for the DATA segment (the DATA segment is used to store initialized data). The argument is a string enclosed in double quotes. Note: The default linker configuration file does only map the standard segments. If you use other segments, you have to create a new linker configuration file. Example: <tscreen><verb> #pragma dataseg ("MyDATA") </verb></tscreen> <sect1><tt>#pragma rodataseg (<name>)</tt> This pragma changes the name used for the RODATA segment (the RODATA segment is used to store readonly data). The argument is a string enclosed in double quotes. Note: The default linker configuration file does only map the standard segments. If you use other segments, you have to create a new linker configuration file. Example: <tscreen><verb> #pragma rodataseg ("MyRODATA") </verb></tscreen> <sect1><tt>#pragma regvaraddr (on|off)</tt> The compiler does not allow to take the address of register variables. The regvaraddr pragma changes this. Taking the address of a register variable is allowed after using this pragma with "on" as argument. Using "off" as an argument switches back to the default behaviour. Beware: The C standard does not allow taking the address of a variable declared as register. So your programs become non-portable if you use this pragma. In addition, your program may not work. This is usually the case if a subroutine is called with the address of a register variable, and this subroutine (or a subroutine called from there) uses itself register variables. So be careful with this #pragma. Example: <tscreen><verb> #pragma regvaraddr(1) /* Allow taking the address * of register variables */ </verb></tscreen> <sect1><tt>#pragma signedchars (on|off)</tt><label id="pragma-signedchars"> Changes the signedness of the default character type. If the argument is "on", default characters are signed, otherwise characters are unsigned. The compiler default is to make characters unsigned since this creates a lot better code. This default may be overridden by the <tt/--signed-chars/ command line option. <sect1><tt>#pragma staticlocals (on|off)</tt><label id="pragma-staticlocals" Use variables in the bss segment instead of variables on the stack. This pragma changes the default set by the compiler option <tt/-Cl/. If the argument is "on", local variables are allocated in the BSS segment, leading to shorter and in most cases faster, but non-reentrant code. <sect1><tt>#pragma zpsym (<name>)</tt> Tell the compiler that the - previously as external declared - symbol with the given name is a zero page symbol (usually from an assembler file). The compiler will create a matching import declaration for the assembler. Example: <tscreen><verb> extern int foo; #pragma zpsym ("foo"); /* foo is in the zeropage */ </verb></tscreen> <sect>Inline assembler<label id="inline-asm"> The compiler allows to insert assembler statements into the output file. The syntax is <tscreen><verb> asm (<string literal>[, optional parameters]) ; </verb></tscreen> or <tscreen><verb> __asm__ (<string literal>[, optional parameters]) ; </verb></tscreen> The first form is in the user namespace and is disabled by <tt><ref id="option-A" name="-A"></tt>. The asm statement may be used inside a function and on global file level. An inline assembler statement is a primary expression, so it may also be used as part of an expression. Please note however that the result of an expression containing just an inline assembler statement is always of type <tt/void/. The contents of the string literal are preparsed by the compiler and inserted into the generated assembly output, so that the can be further processed by the backend and especially the optimizer. For this reason, the compiler does only allow regular 6502 opcodes to be used with the inline assembler. Pseudo instructions (like <tt/.import/, <tt/.byte/ and so on) are <em/not/ allowed, even if the ca65 assembler (which is used to translate the generated assembler code) would accept them. The builtin inline assembler is not a replacement for the full blown macro assembler which comes with the compiler. Note: Inline assembler statements are subject to all optimizations done by the compiler. There is currently no way to protect an inline assembler statement from being moved or removed completely by the optimizer. If in doubt, check the generated assembler output, or disable optimizations. The string literal may contain format specifiers from the following list. For each format specifier, an argument is expected which is inserted instead of the format specifier before passing the assembly code line to the backend. <itemize> <item><tt/%b/ - Numerical 8 bit value <item><tt/%w/ - Numerical 16 bit value <item><tt/%l/ - Numerical 32 bit value <item><tt/%v/ - Assembler name of a (global) variable <item><tt/%o/ - Stack offset of a (local) variable <item><tt/%%/ - The % sign itself </itemize> Using these format specifiers, you can access C <tt/#defines/, variables or similar stuff from the inline assembler. For example, to load the value of a C <tt/#define/ into the Y register, one would use <tscreen><verb> #define OFFS 23 __asm__ ("ldy #%b", OFFS); </verb></tscreen> Or, to access a struct member of a static variable: <tscreen><verb> typedef struct { unsigned char x; unsigned char y; unsigned char color; } pixel_t; static pixel_t pixel; __asm__ ("ldy #%b", offsetof(pixel_t, color)); __asm__ ("lda %v,y", pixel); </verb></tscreen> Note: Do not embedd the assembler labels that are used as names of global variables into your asm statements. Code like this <tscreen><verb> int foo; __asm__ ("lda _foo"); /* DON'T DO THAT! */ </verb></tscreen> may stop working if the way, the compiler generates variable names is changed in a future version. <sect>Bugs/Feedback If you have problems using the compiler, if you find any bugs, or if you're doing something interesting with it, I would be glad to hear from you. Feel free to contact me by email (<htmlurl url="mailto:uz@cc65.org" name="uz@cc65.org">). <sect>Copyright This is the original compiler copyright: <tscreen><verb> -------------------------------------------------------------------------- -*- Mode: Text -*- This is the copyright notice for RA65, LINK65, LIBR65, and other Atari 8-bit programs. Said programs are Copyright 1989, by John R. Dunning. All rights reserved, with the following exceptions: Anyone may copy or redistribute these programs, provided that: 1: You don't charge anything for the copy. It is permissable to charge a nominal fee for media, etc. 2: All source code and documentation for the programs is made available as part of the distribution. 3: This copyright notice is preserved verbatim, and included in the distribution. You are allowed to modify these programs, and redistribute the modified versions, provided that the modifications are clearly noted. There is NO WARRANTY with this software, it comes as is, and is distributed in the hope that it may be useful. This copyright notice applies to any program which contains this text, or the refers to this file. This copyright notice is based on the one published by the Free Software Foundation, sometimes known as the GNU project. The idea is the same as theirs, ie the software is free, and is intended to stay that way. Everybody has the right to copy, modify, and re- distribute this software. Nobody has the right to prevent anyone else from copying, modifying or redistributing it. -------------------------------------------------------------------------- </verb></tscreen> In acknowledgment of this copyright, I will place my own changes to the compiler under the same copyright. Please note however, that the library and all binutils are covered by another copyright, and that I'm planning to do a complete rewrite of the compiler, after which the compiler copyright will also change. For the list of changes requested by this copyright see newvers.txt. </article>