diff --git a/6502 opcodes.txt b/6502 opcodes.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4b6f4ec --- /dev/null +++ b/6502 opcodes.txt @@ -0,0 +1,540 @@ +ADC (ADd with Carry) + +Affects Flags: N V Z C + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Immediate ADC #$44 $69 2 2 +Zero Page ADC $44 $65 2 3 +Zero Page,X ADC $44,X $75 2 4 +Absolute ADC $4400 $6D 3 4 +Absolute,X ADC $4400,X $7D 3 4+ +Absolute,Y ADC $4400,Y $79 3 4+ +Indirect,X ADC ($44,X) $61 2 6 +Indirect,Y ADC ($44),Y $71 2 5+ + ++ add 1 cycle if page boundary crossed + +ADC results are dependant on the setting of the decimal flag. In decimal mode, addition is carried out on the assumption that the values involved are packed BCD (Binary Coded Decimal). + +There is no way to add without carry. + + +AND (bitwise AND with accumulator) + +Affects Flags: N Z + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Immediate AND #$44 $29 2 2 +Zero Page AND $44 $25 2 3 +Zero Page,X AND $44,X $35 2 4 +Absolute AND $4400 $2D 3 4 +Absolute,X AND $4400,X $3D 3 4+ +Absolute,Y AND $4400,Y $39 3 4+ +Indirect,X AND ($44,X) $21 2 6 +Indirect,Y AND ($44),Y $31 2 5+ + ++ add 1 cycle if page boundary crossed + + +ASL (Arithmetic Shift Left) + +Affects Flags: N Z C + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Accumulator ASL A $0A 1 2 +Zero Page ASL $44 $06 2 5 +Zero Page,X ASL $44,X $16 2 6 +Absolute ASL $4400 $0E 3 6 +Absolute,X ASL $4400,X $1E 3 7 + +ASL shifts all bits left one position. 0 is shifted into bit 0 and the original bit 7 is shifted into the Carry. + + +BIT (test BITs) + +Affects Flags: N V Z + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Zero Page BIT $44 $24 2 3 +Absolute BIT $4400 $2C 3 4 + +BIT sets the Z flag as though the value in the address tested were ANDed with the accumulator. The S and V flags are set to match bits 7 and 6 respectively in the value stored at the tested address. + +BIT is often used to skip one or two following bytes as in: + +CLOSE1 LDX #$10 If entered here, we + .BYTE $2C effectively perform +CLOSE2 LDX #$20 a BIT test on $20A2, + .BYTE $2C another one on $30A2, +CLOSE3 LDX #$30 and end up with the X +CLOSEX LDA #12 register still at $10 + STA ICCOM,X upon arrival here. + +Beware: a BIT instruction used in this way as a NOP does have effects: the flags may be modified, and the read of the absolute address, if it happens to access an I/O device, may cause an unwanted action. + + +Branch Instructions + +Affect Flags: none + +All branches are relative mode and have a length of two bytes. Syntax is "Bxx Displacement" or (better) "Bxx Label". See the notes on the Program Counter for more on displacements. + +Branches are dependant on the status of the flag bits when the op code is encountered. A branch not taken requires two machine cycles. Add one if the branch is taken and add one more if the branch crosses a page boundary. + +MNEMONIC HEX +BPL (Branch on PLus) $10 +BMI (Branch on MInus) $30 +BVC (Branch on oVerflow Clear) $50 +BVS (Branch on oVerflow Set) $70 +BCC (Branch on Carry Clear) $90 +BCS (Branch on Carry Set) $B0 +BNE (Branch on Not Equal) $D0 +BEQ (Branch on EQual) $F0 + +There is no BRA (BRanch Always) instruction but it can be easily emulated by branching on the basis of a known condition. One of the best flags to use for this purpose is the oVerflow which is unchanged by all but addition and subtraction operations. + +A page boundary crossing occurs when the branch destination is on a different page than the instruction AFTER the branch instruction. For example: + + SEC + BCS LABEL + NOP + +A page boundary crossing occurs (i.e. the BCS takes 4 cycles) when (the address of) LABEL and the NOP are on different pages. This means that + + CLV + BVC LABEL + LABEL NOP + +the BVC instruction will take 3 cycles no matter what address it is located at. + + +BRK (BReaK) + +Affects Flags: B + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Implied BRK $00 1 7 + +BRK causes a non-maskable interrupt and increments the program counter by one. Therefore an RTI will go to the address of the BRK +2 so that BRK may be used to replace a two-byte instruction for debugging and the subsequent RTI will be correct. + + +CMP (CoMPare accumulator) + +Affects Flags: N Z C + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Immediate CMP #$44 $C9 2 2 +Zero Page CMP $44 $C5 2 3 +Zero Page,X CMP $44,X $D5 2 4 +Absolute CMP $4400 $CD 3 4 +Absolute,X CMP $4400,X $DD 3 4+ +Absolute,Y CMP $4400,Y $D9 3 4+ +Indirect,X CMP ($44,X) $C1 2 6 +Indirect,Y CMP ($44),Y $D1 2 5+ + ++ add 1 cycle if page boundary crossed + +Compare sets flags as if a subtraction had been carried out. If the value in the accumulator is equal or greater than the compared value, the Carry will be set. The equal (Z) and negative (N) flags will be set based on equality or lack thereof and the sign (i.e. A>=$80) of the accumulator. + + +CPX (ComPare X register) + +Affects Flags: N Z C + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Immediate CPX #$44 $E0 2 2 +Zero Page CPX $44 $E4 2 3 +Absolute CPX $4400 $EC 3 4 + +Operation and flag results are identical to equivalent mode accumulator CMP ops. + + +CPY (ComPare Y register) + +Affects Flags: N Z C + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Immediate CPY #$44 $C0 2 2 +Zero Page CPY $44 $C4 2 3 +Absolute CPY $4400 $CC 3 4 + +Operation and flag results are identical to equivalent mode accumulator CMP ops. + + +DEC (DECrement memory) + +Affects Flags: N Z + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Zero Page DEC $44 $C6 2 5 +Zero Page,X DEC $44,X $D6 2 6 +Absolute DEC $4400 $CE 3 6 +Absolute,X DEC $4400,X $DE 3 7 + + +EOR (bitwise Exclusive OR) + +Affects Flags: N Z + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Immediate EOR #$44 $49 2 2 +Zero Page EOR $44 $45 2 3 +Zero Page,X EOR $44,X $55 2 4 +Absolute EOR $4400 $4D 3 4 +Absolute,X EOR $4400,X $5D 3 4+ +Absolute,Y EOR $4400,Y $59 3 4+ +Indirect,X EOR ($44,X) $41 2 6 +Indirect,Y EOR ($44),Y $51 2 5+ + ++ add 1 cycle if page boundary crossed + + +Flag (Processor Status) Instructions + +Affect Flags: as noted + +These instructions are implied mode, have a length of one byte and require two machine cycles. + +MNEMONIC HEX +CLC (CLear Carry) $18 +SEC (SEt Carry) $38 +CLI (CLear Interrupt) $58 +SEI (SEt Interrupt) $78 +CLV (CLear oVerflow) $B8 +CLD (CLear Decimal) $D8 +SED (SEt Decimal) $F8 + +Notes: + + The Interrupt flag is used to prevent (SEI) or enable (CLI) maskable interrupts (aka IRQ's). It does not signal the presence or absence of an interrupt condition. The 6502 will set this flag automatically in response to an interrupt and restore it to its prior status on completion of the interrupt service routine. If you want your interrupt service routine to permit other maskable interrupts, you must clear the I flag in your code. + + The Decimal flag controls how the 6502 adds and subtracts. If set, arithmetic is carried out in packed binary coded decimal. This flag is unchanged by interrupts and is unknown on power-up. The implication is that a CLD should be included in boot or interrupt coding. + + The Overflow flag is generally misunderstood and therefore under-utilised. After an ADC or SBC instruction, the overflow flag will be set if the twos complement result is less than -128 or greater than +127, and it will cleared otherwise. In twos complement, $80 through $FF represents -128 through -1, and $00 through $7F represents 0 through +127. Thus, after: + + CLC + LDA #$7F ; +127 + ADC #$01 ; + +1 + +the overflow flag is 1 (+127 + +1 = +128), and after: + + CLC + LDA #$81 ; -127 + ADC #$FF ; + -1 + +the overflow flag is 0 (-127 + -1 = -128). The overflow flag is not affected by increments, decrements, shifts and logical operations i.e. only ADC, BIT, CLV, PLP, RTI and SBC affect it. There is no op code to set the overflow but a BIT test on an RTS instruction will do the trick. + + +INC (INCrement memory) + +Affects Flags: N Z + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Zero Page INC $44 $E6 2 5 +Zero Page,X INC $44,X $F6 2 6 +Absolute INC $4400 $EE 3 6 +Absolute,X INC $4400,X $FE 3 7 + + +JMP (JuMP) + +Affects Flags: none + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Absolute JMP $5597 $4C 3 3 +Indirect JMP ($5597) $6C 3 5 + +JMP transfers program execution to the following address (absolute) or to the location contained in the following address (indirect). Note that there is no carry associated with the indirect jump so: + +AN INDIRECT JUMP MUST NEVER USE A +VECTOR BEGINNING ON THE LAST BYTE +OF A PAGE + +For example if address $3000 contains $40, $30FF contains $80, and $3100 contains $50, the result of JMP ($30FF) will be a transfer of control to $4080 rather than $5080 as you intended i.e. the 6502 took the low byte of the address from $30FF and the high byte from $3000. + + +JSR (Jump to SubRoutine) + +Affects Flags: none + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Absolute JSR $5597 $20 3 6 + +JSR pushes the address-1 of the next operation on to the stack before transferring program control to the following address. Subroutines are normally terminated by a RTS op code. + + +LDA (LoaD Accumulator) + +Affects Flags: N Z + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Immediate LDA #$44 $A9 2 2 +Zero Page LDA $44 $A5 2 3 +Zero Page,X LDA $44,X $B5 2 4 +Absolute LDA $4400 $AD 3 4 +Absolute,X LDA $4400,X $BD 3 4+ +Absolute,Y LDA $4400,Y $B9 3 4+ +Indirect,X LDA ($44,X) $A1 2 6 +Indirect,Y LDA ($44),Y $B1 2 5+ + ++ add 1 cycle if page boundary crossed + + +LDX (LoaD X register) + +Affects Flags: N Z + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Immediate LDX #$44 $A2 2 2 +Zero Page LDX $44 $A6 2 3 +Zero Page,Y LDX $44,Y $B6 2 4 +Absolute LDX $4400 $AE 3 4 +Absolute,Y LDX $4400,Y $BE 3 4+ + ++ add 1 cycle if page boundary crossed + + +LDY (LoaD Y register) + +Affects Flags: N Z + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Immediate LDY #$44 $A0 2 2 +Zero Page LDY $44 $A4 2 3 +Zero Page,X LDY $44,X $B4 2 4 +Absolute LDY $4400 $AC 3 4 +Absolute,X LDY $4400,X $BC 3 4+ + ++ add 1 cycle if page boundary crossed + + +LSR (Logical Shift Right) + +Affects Flags: N Z C + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Accumulator LSR A $4A 1 2 +Zero Page LSR $44 $46 2 5 +Zero Page,X LSR $44,X $56 2 6 +Absolute LSR $4400 $4E 3 6 +Absolute,X LSR $4400,X $5E 3 7 + +LSR shifts all bits right one position. 0 is shifted into bit 7 and the original bit 0 is shifted into the Carry. + + +Wrap-Around + +Use caution with indexed zero page operations as they are subject to wrap-around. For example, if the X register holds $FF and you execute LDA $80,X you will not access $017F as you might expect; instead you access $7F i.e. $80-1. This characteristic can be used to advantage but make sure your code is well commented. + +It is possible, however, to access $017F when X = $FF by using the Absolute,X addressing mode of LDA $80,X. That is, instead of: + + LDA $80,X ; ZeroPage,X - the resulting object code is: B5 80 + +which accesses $007F when X=$FF, use: + + LDA $0080,X ; Absolute,X - the resulting object code is: BD 80 00 + +which accesses $017F when X = $FF (a at cost of one additional byte and one additional cycle). All of the ZeroPage,X and ZeroPage,Y instructions except STX ZeroPage,Y and STY ZeroPage,X have a corresponding Absolute,X and Absolute,Y instruction. Unfortunately, a lot of 6502 assemblers don't have an easy way to force Absolute addressing, i.e. most will assemble a LDA $0080,X as B5 80. One way to overcome this is to insert the bytes using the .BYTE pseudo-op (on some 6502 assemblers this pseudo-op is called DB or DFB, consult the assembler documentation) as follows: + + .BYTE $BD,$80,$00 ; LDA $0080,X (absolute,X addressing mode) + +The comment is optional, but highly recommended for clarity. + +In cases where you are writing code that will be relocated you must consider wrap-around when assigning dummy values for addresses that will be adjusted. Both zero and the semi-standard $FFFF should be avoided for dummy labels. The use of zero or zero page values will result in assembled code with zero page opcodes when you wanted absolute codes. With $FFFF, the problem is in addresses+1 as you wrap around to page 0. + + +Program Counter + +When the 6502 is ready for the next instruction it increments the program counter before fetching the instruction. Once it has the op code, it increments the program counter by the length of the operand, if any. This must be accounted for when calculating branches or when pushing bytes to create a false return address (i.e. jump table addresses are made up of addresses-1 when it is intended to use an RTS rather than a JMP). + +The program counter is loaded least signifigant byte first. Therefore the most signifigant byte must be pushed first when creating a false return address. + +When calculating branches a forward branch of 6 skips the following 6 bytes so, effectively the program counter points to the address that is 8 bytes beyond the address of the branch opcode; and a backward branch of $FA (256-6) goes to an address 4 bytes before the branch instruction. + + +Execution Times + +Op code execution times are measured in machine cycles; one machine cycle equals one clock cycle. Many instructions require one extra cycle for execution if a page boundary is crossed; these are indicated by a + following the time values shown. + + +NOP (No OPeration) + +Affects Flags: none + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Implied NOP $EA 1 2 + +NOP is used to reserve space for future modifications or effectively REM out existing code. + + +ORA (bitwise OR with Accumulator) + +Affects Flags: N Z + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Immediate ORA #$44 $09 2 2 +Zero Page ORA $44 $05 2 3 +Zero Page,X ORA $44,X $15 2 4 +Absolute ORA $4400 $0D 3 4 +Absolute,X ORA $4400,X $1D 3 4+ +Absolute,Y ORA $4400,Y $19 3 4+ +Indirect,X ORA ($44,X) $01 2 6 +Indirect,Y ORA ($44),Y $11 2 5+ + ++ add 1 cycle if page boundary crossed + + +Register Instructions + +Affect Flags: N Z + +These instructions are implied mode, have a length of one byte and require two machine cycles. + +MNEMONIC HEX +TAX (Transfer A to X) $AA +TXA (Transfer X to A) $8A +DEX (DEcrement X) $CA +INX (INcrement X) $E8 +TAY (Transfer A to Y) $A8 +TYA (Transfer Y to A) $98 +DEY (DEcrement Y) $88 +INY (INcrement Y) $C8 + + +ROL (ROtate Left) + +Affects Flags: N Z C + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Accumulator ROL A $2A 1 2 +Zero Page ROL $44 $26 2 5 +Zero Page,X ROL $44,X $36 2 6 +Absolute ROL $4400 $2E 3 6 +Absolute,X ROL $4400,X $3E 3 7 + +ROL shifts all bits left one position. The Carry is shifted into bit 0 and the original bit 7 is shifted into the Carry. + + +ROR (ROtate Right) + +Affects Flags: N Z C + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Accumulator ROR A $6A 1 2 +Zero Page ROR $44 $66 2 5 +Zero Page,X ROR $44,X $76 2 6 +Absolute ROR $4400 $6E 3 6 +Absolute,X ROR $4400,X $7E 3 7 + +ROR shifts all bits right one position. The Carry is shifted into bit 7 and the original bit 0 is shifted into the Carry. + + +RTI (ReTurn from Interrupt) + +Affects Flags: all + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Implied RTI $40 1 6 + +RTI retrieves the Processor Status Word (flags) and the Program Counter from the stack in that order (interrupts push the PC first and then the PSW). + +Note that unlike RTS, the return address on the stack is the actual address rather than the address-1. + + +RTS (ReTurn from Subroutine) + +Affects Flags: none + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Implied RTS $60 1 6 + +RTS pulls the top two bytes off the stack (low byte first) and transfers program control to that address+1. It is used, as expected, to exit a subroutine invoked via JSR which pushed the address-1. + +RTS is frequently used to implement a jump table where addresses-1 are pushed onto the stack and accessed via RTS eg. to access the second of four routines: + + LDX #1 + JSR EXEC + JMP SOMEWHERE + +LOBYTE + .BYTE ROUTINE0-1,>ROUTINE1-1 + .BYTE >ROUTINE2-1,>ROUTINE3-1 + +EXEC + LDA HIBYTE,X + PHA + LDA LOBYTE,X + PHA + RTS + + +SBC (SuBtract with Carry) + +Affects Flags: N V Z C + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Immediate SBC #$44 $E9 2 2 +Zero Page SBC $44 $E5 2 3 +Zero Page,X SBC $44,X $F5 2 4 +Absolute SBC $4400 $ED 3 4 +Absolute,X SBC $4400,X $FD 3 4+ +Absolute,Y SBC $4400,Y $F9 3 4+ +Indirect,X SBC ($44,X) $E1 2 6 +Indirect,Y SBC ($44),Y $F1 2 5+ + ++ add 1 cycle if page boundary crossed + +SBC results are dependant on the setting of the decimal flag. In decimal mode, subtraction is carried out on the assumption that the values involved are packed BCD (Binary Coded Decimal). + +There is no way to subtract without the carry which works as an inverse borrow. i.e, to subtract you set the carry before the operation. If the carry is cleared by the operation, it indicates a borrow occurred. + + +STA (STore Accumulator) + +Affects Flags: none + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Zero Page STA $44 $85 2 3 +Zero Page,X STA $44,X $95 2 4 +Absolute STA $4400 $8D 3 4 +Absolute,X STA $4400,X $9D 3 5 +Absolute,Y STA $4400,Y $99 3 5 +Indirect,X STA ($44,X) $81 2 6 +Indirect,Y STA ($44),Y $91 2 6 + + +Stack Instructions + +These instructions are implied mode, have a length of one byte and require machine cycles as indicated. The "PuLl" operations are known as "POP" on most other microprocessors. With the 6502, the stack is always on page one ($100-$1FF) and works top down. + +MNEMONIC HEX TIM +TXS (Transfer X to Stack ptr) $9A 2 +TSX (Transfer Stack ptr to X) $BA 2 +PHA (PusH Accumulator) $48 3 +PLA (PuLl Accumulator) $68 4 +PHP (PusH Processor status) $08 3 +PLP (PuLl Processor status) $28 4 + + +STX (STore X register) + +Affects Flags: none + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Zero Page STX $44 $86 2 3 +Zero Page,Y STX $44,Y $96 2 4 +Absolute STX $4400 $8E 3 4 + + +STY (STore Y register) + +Affects Flags: none + +MODE SYNTAX HEX LEN TIM +Zero Page STY $44 $84 2 3 +Zero Page,X STY $44,X $94 2 4 +Absolute STY $4400 $8C 3 4 diff --git a/BYTE_AUG 83-A_New_Shape_Routine_for_the_Apple.txt b/BYTE_AUG 83-A_New_Shape_Routine_for_the_Apple.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..51c37cd --- /dev/null +++ b/BYTE_AUG 83-A_New_Shape_Routine_for_the_Apple.txt @@ -0,0 +1,946 @@ + A New Shape Subroutine for the Apple + + by Richard T. Simoni Jr. + + August 1983 (c) BYTE Publications Inc + + Athletes pole-vault, race cars spin, and fighter planes +fire at enemy aircraft. Is this the real world? No, I'm +talking about fast, smooth animation on the Apple II +high-resolution graphics screen. In the past year, dozens of +new Apple II programs have achieved such awesome animation +capabilities that several years ago most Apple programmers +would scarcely have believed them possible. After trying +unsuccessfully to match the quality of the commercially +produced animation in my own assembly-language programs, I +realized that the problem stemmed from the standard Apple +shape subroutine that I was using to display the shapes I +wanted to animate. + + Standard Hi-Res Package + + The hi-res (high-resolution) graphics package I was +using is the standard package supplied by Apple Computer. It +once was supplied with all Apple II computers sold, and it +can now be found on the volume 3 disk of the Apple Software +Bank Contributed Programs, available from Apple dealers. +Indeed, this package was eventually incorporated into the +Applesoft language to add hi-res commands. Written in +machine language, the package includes subroutines to clear +the screen, plot a point, draw a line, and draw a shape on +the hi-res screen. Although the clear, plot, and line +subroutines work well in animation, the shape subroutine is +much too slow to allow shapes to move across the screen +quickly, smoothly, and without flickering. + + The speed of the shape subroutine is the most important +factor in animation for two main reasons. First, the speed +with which the subroutine can plot the shape, erase it, and +plot it again in its next position limits how fast any shape +can move across the screen. Second, in a typical animation +scheme, a shape moves from one position to the next in four +phases, which correspond to the time required to plot the +shape, the time the shape remains on the screen, the time +required to erase the shape, and the time that the shape is +not on the screen at all. These four phases repeat each time +a shape moves to a new position. The time spent during each +phase of the process determines how fast the shape moves and +how smooth and flicker-free the animation looks. To maximize +the smoothness, the time used in plotting the shape, erasing +the shape, and leaving the shape off the screen must be +minimized, for the human eye perceives these phases as +contributing to the flicker of the image. On the other hand, +if the amount of time the eye sees the image whole on the +screen is significantly greater than the time required for +the other phases, the image appears to move smoothly across +the screen. Minimizing the time the image is totally off the +screen is not difficult, for all calculations for the next +plot can be done while the image is on the screen; when the +image is erased, it can then be immediately plotted in the +new position. The times required to plot and erase the +shape, however, are directly determined by the speed of the +image subroutine. If the subroutine is slow, the plot and +erase times are long, and the image appears to flicker as it +moves across the screen. + + Representing Shapes + + To understand why the standard Apple shape subroutine +is too slow for most animation purposes, you must know how +the subroutine works and especially how it expects a shape +to be represented in memory. A shape is represented by a +series of vectors in memory, with each vector specifying if +a given pixel should be turned on. It also specifies which +of the four adjacent pixels should be addressed by the next +vector. This scheme best suits the representation of simple, +single-line shapes such as those in figure 1. Unfortunately, +if a shape must be filled in or if the shape has any detail +drawn within its boundaries, as in figure 2, the shape's +representation is awkward and inefficient at best. In these +cases it is often necessary to overplot points and use many +vectors that specify motion without plotting. Moreover, if +the shape is large, the sheer size of the vector table +becomes unwieldy. When the time comes to plot these shapes, +the subroutine steps through the table, and each vector +takes up a certain amount of time. If the vector table +represents the shape inefficiently, the end result is wasted +time in the plotting of the shape. + + Similarly contributing to the slow speed of the shape +subroutine is the inclusion of scaling and rotation factors. +In order to plot a shape, a calling routine must specify a +scaling factor that determines the plotted shape's size +(actual size, double size, triple size, etc.) and a rotation +factor that determines the angle through which the shape is +rotated before plotting. Although these factors are useful +in some applications, using them with shape animation rarely +produces satisfying results, and these calculations slow the +subroutine considerably. + + A New Shape Subroutine + + After realizing that the speed bottleneck in my +programs was caused by the shape subroutine, I went about +designing my own subroutine with two criteria in mind. +First, the subroutine had to be high speed to minimize image +flicker, and second, the method of representing a shape in +memory had to allow complicated images to be plotted as +quickly as simple single-line shapes of the same overall +size. One way to meet these criteria is to use a bit picture +to represent the shape in memory. In other words, the shape +is represented in main memory in the same form in which it +is ultimately represented in the hi-res screen memory when +the shape is plotted on the hi-res screen. Plotting the +shape is then simple and fast: the bytes representing the +shape in main memory need only be transferred to the hi-res +screen memory. I used this technique in writing a fast shape +subroutine suitable for animation. + + The table of bytes that make up the bit picture is +called the shape table. A shape table is most easily formed +through the use of the shape-editor program presented later +in this article. To form a shape table manually, start by +drawing the shape on a piece of graph paper with one pixel +per square, as in figure 3a. Use 1s to represent on pixels +and 0s to represent off pixels. Draw the smallest possible +rectangle that still encloses the entire figure. Then split +each line of binary digits enclosed by the rectangle into +7-bit groups. If, as in figure 3b, the last group doesn't +have afull 7 bits, add enough 0s to the end of each line to +bring the total up to 7 bits. Due to limitations to the +subroutine, no more than seven 7-bit groups per line are +allowed. Reverse the order of the bits in each group, as +shown in figure 3c. Convert each new 7-bit group into its +hexadecimal or decimal equivalent, whichever is preferred +(figure 3d shows the hexadecimal equivalent) and, reading +across each line left to rightfrom the top to the bottom +line, recopythe list of numbers in table (linear) form. The +table is now complete except for two bytes that belong at +the top of the table. The first of these butes represents +the height of the shaps -- in other words, the number of +lines of digits in figure 3b; the second byte represents the +width of the shape in 7-bit groups that is, the number of +7-bit groups used in each line in figure 3b. As previously +mentioned, this width should be no more than seven groups. +The complete table in hexadecimal form for the sample shape +used in figure 3 is as follows: + + 05 02 78 07 14 04 12 02 + 11 01 7F 00 + + The shape subroutine itself is shown in listing 1, and +the lookup tables used by the subroutine are shown in +listing 2. Before calling the subroutine, several registers +and memory locations must be set up with certain parameters, +including the hi-res screen coordinates of the pixel where +the upper left corner of the bit picture should be +positioned. The low-order byte of the xcoordinate should be +placed in theX register, and the corresponding highorder +byte of the x coordinate (either 1 or 0) goes in the Y +register. The ycoordinate goes in the A +register(accumulator). The low- and high-order bytes of the +shape-table starting address should be stored in hexadecimal +memory locations EB and EC, respectively. The subroutine can +then be called with the usual JSR instruction. A summary of +the parameter setup is given in table 1. + + The subroutine works by taking the exclusive-OR of each +affected bit in page-1 hi-res screen memory with the +corresponding bit of the bit picture. This exclusive-OR +plotting has several advantages. First, a color need not be +specified; the shape is drawn by calling the subroutine once +and is erased by simply calling it again with the same +screen coordinates. Second, any shape drawn using +exclusive-OR plotting is nondestructive; that is, whatever +the shape happens to plot over is restored when the shape is +erased. This property can be used to form interesting +backgrounds that need not be redrawn after shapes are +plotted and moved on top of them. Cross-hair cursors are +also free to move around without destroying the screen's +previous contents. + + Several details about the subroutine need to be +explained. Zero page (hexadecimal locations 00 through FF) +of memory is used for temporary storage; the particular +locations used were chosen to avoid destruction of locations +used by the Apple Monitor, Applesoft, Integer Basic, and the +DOS (disk operating system). The subroutine does not operate +correctly without the tables shown in listing 2. These +tables may be stored anywhere in memory, but are best +located immediately after the subroutine in memory. Three +pertinent Text continued from page 303: tables are named +QUOTBL, LOSTRT, and HISTRT. QUOTBL is a lookup table used +internally by the subroutine to divide the x-coordinate by +7. LOSTRT and HISTRT are each 192 bytes long, and they +contain the low- and high-order bytes of the address of the +leftmost byte of each y-coordmate in page 1 of hi-res screen +memory. For plotting on page 2 of the hi-res memory, a +hexadecimal 20 should be added to each byte in the table +HISTRT Although I wanted the subroutine to be fully +relocatable, I compromised this requirement in favor of +additional speed. However, as I have written it, relocating +the subroutine requires changing only the two locations +referencing QUOTBL in lines 38 and 41 of listing 1. + + A Note on Color + + One of the most difficult aspects of using the Apple +high-resolution graphics mode is trying to control the color +of objects displayed on the screen. This difficulty arises +because a color cannot be individually assigned to each +pixel on the screen; the color depends instead on such +factors as whether an object is drawn with pixels +horizontally alternating between on and off and whether the +on pixels have even or odd x coordinates. Through careful +programming and shape-table composition, you can control +colors in this manner using the shape subroutine presented +in this article. In newer Apples, however, two more colors +are added to the hi-res screen by defin-. ing the previously +unused high-order bit in each word in hi-res screen memory. +Unfortunately, these colors cannot be easily displayed using +the shape subroutine because the subroutine forces the extra +bit in the hi-res screen to 0. For a complete description of +color in the Apple hi-res screen, see page 19 of the Apple +II Reference Manual (Cupertino: Apple Computer Inc., 1979). + + The Shape-Editor Program + + Although it is not difficult to form the shape table +for a given shape, it is often time consuming. When writing +a program that uses shapes, you rarely know in advance the +exact pixel pattern that makes up the shape. Even if you +know the pattern, you're probably not sure whether the shape +will look good on the hi-res screen. It might take you hours +to develop a suitable shape if you have to write out each +trial on graph paper, form the shape table, and use the +subroutine to display the shape before you can tell if it is +satisfactory. This time-consuming method can bring the +creative process to a halt. A more desirable situation would +be one in which you could easily experiment with different +shapes on the hi-res screen until you were satisfied with +the results and then form the shape table directly from the +screen image. I had this concept in mind when writing the +shape-editor program shown in listing 3. The program +features complete hi-res editing, both actual size and a +blown-up view of the shape being drawn, disk storage of the +current shape (the source file) for future editing, and +assembly of a shape table from any portion of the current +screen. + + The editor program requires an Apple II with 32K bytes +of memory, a disk drive, and Applesoft in ROM (read-only +memory). When you run the program, the list of commands +shown in photo 1 comes up on the screen. After you press the +space bar, the left area of the screen becomes blank, and a +grid appears on the right. The blank area is the "slate" on +which you can draw different shapes actual size. Anything +drawn also appears enlarged on the grid, making it easier to +see details of the shape. Once the grid has been drawn, a +small horizontal line appears in one of the small squares in +the grid. This is the cursor, which always shows the current +drawing position of the program. + + Once the cursor appears on the screen, you can execute +any of the commands listed in the menu (photo 1) by pressing +the corresponding letter on the keyboard. The letters I, J, +K, and M are used for moving the graphics cursor up, left, +right, and down, respectively. The Plot command plots a +point at the current cursor position, and the Erase command +erases the point at the current cursor position. Neither the +Plot nor the Erase command causes any harm if the command +has already been used at the cursor position (e.g., if the +Plot command is used at a position where a point already +exists). The Clear command clears the screen after prompting +you to verify that the screen should indeed be cleared. By +using the cursor-movement, Plot, Erase, and Clear commands, +you can draw the desired shape on the screen and modify it +as many times as necessary. A shape being drawn in this +screen-edit mode is shown in photo 2. + + With the Table command, you can make a shape table from +any segment of the screen where you have drawn a shape. +After choosing the Table command by pressing the T key, you +must choose the smallest rectangle that encloses the shape; +this is the same rectangle chosen when forming the shape +table manually as previously described. You specify the +boundaries of this rectangle by moving the cursor to the +upper left position of the rectangle and pressing the Return +key and then doing the same for the lower right corner of +the rectangle. The corners are inclusive; that is, the rows +and columns that contain the corners become the outermost +edges included in the shape table. A portion of the +rectangle selection process is shown in photo 3. After you +select the desired rectangle, the program will form the +shape table. The time this takes (typically 15 to 30 +seconds) depends on the size of the shape. The completed +shape table is displayed on the screen in either decimal or +hexadecimal form, depending on how you answer a prompt. The +program will then save this object-file shape table on disk +as a standard binary file if you so desire. You are then +asked whether to return to the screen-edit mode or end the +program. Photo 4 shows the final shape table formed from the +sample shape used in photo 3. + + The Save and Get commands let you store on disk and +later retrieve any picture drawn in the screen-edit mode. +The Save command prompts you for a file name and then saves +to disk a representation of the shape drawn on the grid. The +Get command can then be used to retrieve and display the +picture as long as the saved file remains on disk. Because +the Get command erases any drawing previously on the screen, +you are first asked to confirm that a file is to be loaded. +Once the picture is retrieved, it can be modified or +assembled into a shape table just as if the picture had been +entered using the keyboard commands. + + The Help command (executed by pressing the H or ? key) +returns you from the screen-edit mode to the menu shown at +the beginning of the program for a quick command-letter +check. Pressing the space bar returns you to screen-edit +mode with the contents of the screen unaltered. The Quit +command ends the program. Because any drawing on the screen +is lost once the program is ended, you are asked to confirm +the Quit directive. + + Summing Up + + Using the techniques and programs described in this +article, you can implement professional-looking animation on +the Apple without having to work around the limitations of +the standard Apple shape subroutine. Although I wrote my +shape subroutine with animation in mind, the subroutine is +useful in any graphics applications where detailed shapes +must be drawn. Using the graphics editor as a development +tool, virtually any shape can be easily displayed on the +hi-res screen. + + +Richard T Simoni Jr. (29 Farnham Park Dr., Houston, TX +77024) is currently enrolled as a senior electrical +engineering/computer science/math science major at Rice +University in Houston, Texas. + + + +Figure 1: Because they are easily represented in memory by a +series of vectors, these simple single-line closed shapes +are suitable for display by the standard Apple shape +subroutine on the hi-res graphics screen. + +(1a) (1b) (1c) +........... ........... ............... +........... ........... ....*******.... +..*******.. ..*........ ...*.......*... +..*.....*.. ..**....... ..*.........*.. +..*.....*.. ..*.*...... .*...........*. +..*.....*.. ..*..*..... .*...........*. +..*.....*.. ..*...*.... .*...........*. +..*******.. ..*....*... .*...........*. +........... ..*******.. .*...........*. +........... ........... .*...........*. + ........... .*...........*. + .*************. + ............... + + + +Figure 2: The detail within these shapes makes their +representation as vectors in memory inefficient; therefore, +the standard Apple shape subroutine is neither well suited +nor easy to use for the display of these shapes on the +hi-res screen. + +(2a) (2b) (2c) +........... ..................... ............... +........... .***************..... ....*******.... +..*******.. .*............*.*.... ...*.......*... +..*******.. .*............*..*... ..*.........*.. +..*******.. .*............*...*.. .*...........*. +..*******.. .*............******. .*************. +..*******.. .*.................*. .*...........*. +..*******.. .*******************. .*...........*. +........... ..*****.......*****.. .*....***....*. +........... ...***.........***... .*....*.*....*. + ..................... .*....*.*....*. + .*************. + ............... + + + +Figure 3: To form a shape table, start by drawing the +desired shape on graph paper, using 1s and 0s to represent +"on" and "off" pixels (3a). Next, split each line of bits +into 7-bit groups, padding the last group of each line with +0s if necessary (3b). Then, reverse the order of the binary +digits in each 7-bit group (3c) and convert to hexadecimal +(3d). Later you must add height and width bytes as described +in the text. + +(3a) (3b) (3c) +............ split|here 1111000 0000111 +............ v 0010100 0000100 +....*******. 000000000000 0010010 0000010 +...*.*....*. 000000000000 0010001 0000001 +..*..*...*.. 000011111110 1111111 0000000 +.*...*..*... 000101000010 +.*******.... 001001000100 +............ 010001001000 +............ 011111110000 + 000000000000 + 000000000000 (3d) + | |\ | 78 07 + 0001111 1110000 14 04 + 0010100 0010000 12 02 + 0100100 0100000 11 01 + 1000100 1000000 7F 00 + 1111111 0000000 + | | + added + zeros + + + +Listing 1: A fast shape subroutine that plots +high-resolution shapes on the Apple II. + +0000: 1 OBJ $1B00 +1B00: 2 ORG $1B00 ;ASSEMBLY LOCATION +1B00: 3 ********************************************************* +1B00: 4 * SHAPE SUBROUTINE WRITTEN BY RICHARD T. SIMONI, JR. * +1B00: 5 * * +1B00: 6 * SHAPE WORKS BY STEPPING THROUGH THE USER TABLE ONE * +1B00: 7 * HI-RES LINE AT A TIME, SHIFTING THE BIT PATTERN THE * +1B00: 8 * APPROPRIATE NUMBER OF TIMES (DEPENDING ON THE * +1B00: 9 * X-COORDINATE PASSED IN THE X- AND Y-REGISTERS), AND * +1B00: 10 * MOVING THE PATTERN TO THE PROPER PLACE IN THE HI-RES * +1B00: 11 * SCREEN MEMORY. * +1B00: 12 ********************************************************* +1B00: 13 STARTZ EQU $19 ;START OF LINE STORAGE +1B00: 14 YCOORD EQU $E3 ;LINE COUNTER +1B00: 15 START EQU $EB ;USER TABLE POINTER +1B00: 16 ADDRL EQU $ED ;1ST SCREEN BYTE TO USE +1B00: 17 ADDRH EQU $EE ; IN LINE COORD +1B00: 18 ADDRADD EQU $EF ;OFFSET FROM LEFT BYTE +1B00: 19 SHFTNUM EQU $F9 ;NUMBER OF SHIFTS +1B00: 20 ENDLN EQU $FD ;LAST LINE + 1 +1B00: 21 WIDTH EQU $FB ;WIDTH OF USER TABLE +1B00: 22 INDEX EQU $FC ;POINTER IN USER TABLE +1B00: 23 * +1B00: 24 * DIVIDE X-COORD BY 7 TO GET BYTE OFFSET FROM LEFTMOST +1B00: 25 * BYTE IN ANY HI-RES LINE. REMAINDER WILL BE CORRECT +1B00: 26 * NUMBER OF SHIFTS TO PERFORM ON BIT PATTERN. +1B00: 27 * DIVISION IS PERFORMED USING LOOKUP TABLE FOR SPEED. +1B00: 28 * +1B00: 85 E3 29 STA YCOORD ;STORE Y-COORD (COUNTER) +1B02: 8A 30 TXA +1B03: 0A 31 ASL A +1B04: AA 32 TAX +1B05: 98 33 TYA +1B06: 2A 34 ROL A +1B07: A8 35 TAY ;MULTIPLY X-COORD BY TWO +1B08: 18 36 CLC +1B09: 8A 37 TXA ;A-REG = X-COORD*2 LO-BYTE +1B0A: 69 83 38 ADC #>QUOTBL ;ADD TABLE ADDRESS LO-BYTE +1B0C: 85 ED 39 STA ADDRL ;STORE RESULT +1B0E: 98 40 TYA ;A-REG = X-COORD*2 HI-BYTE +1B0F: 69 18 41 ADC #0 +1B59: 101 * +1B59: 102 * CALCULATE HI-RES SCREEN ADDRESS FOR FIRST BYTE TO +1B59: 103 * BE USED IN LINE YCOORD +1B59: 104 * +1B59: A4 E3 105 LDY YCOORD +1B5B: B9 B3 1D 106 LDA LOSTRT,Y +1B5E: 18 107 CLC +1B5F: 65 EF 108 ADC ADDRADD +1B61: 85 ED 109 STA ADDRL +1B63: B9 73 1E 110 LDA HISTRT,Y +1B66: 69 00 111 ADC #$00 +1B68: 85 EE 112 STA ADDRH ;GET ADDR FOR 1ST BYTE +1B6A: 113 * +1B6A: 114 * MOVE SHIFTED BYTES FROM ZERO PAGE TO HI-RES SCREEN +1B6A: 115 * MEMORY. FOR NON-EXCLUSIVE-OR PLOTTING, CHANGE +1B6A: 116 * 'EOR (ADDRL),Y' TO 'ORA (ADDRL),Y' (OPCODE $11). +1B6A: 117 * +1B6A: A0 00 118 LDY #$00 +1B6C: A6 FB 119 LDX WIDTH +1B6E: B5 19 120 LOOP5 LDA STARTZ,X +1B70: F1 ED 121 SBC (ADDRL),Y +1B72: 91 ED 122 STA (ADDRL),Y ;PLOT BYTE ON SCREEN +1B74: C8 123 INY +1B75: CA 124 DEX +1B76: E0 FF 125 CPX #$FF ;THROUGH PLOTTING LINE? +1B78: D0 F4 126 BNE LOOP5 ;NO, LOOP +1B7A: E6 E3 127 INC YCOORD ;YES, GO TO NEXT LINE +1B7C: A5 E3 128 LDA YCOORD +1B7E: C5 FD 129 CMP ENDLN ;MORE LINES? +1B80: D0 AD 120 BNE $1B2F ;YES, LOOP +1B82: 60 131 RTS ;NO, RETURN +1B83: 132 QUOTBL EQU * +1B83: 133 LOSTRT EQU *+560 +1B83: 134 HISTRT EQU *+752 + +*** SUCCESSFUL ASSEMBLY: NO ERRORS + + + +Listing 2: Lookup tables used by the listing 1 subroutine. + +1b83: 00 00 00 01 00 02 00 03 00 04 00 05 00 +1b90: 06 01 00 01 01 01 02 01 03 01 04 01 05 01 06 02 +1ba0: 00 02 01 02 02 02 03 02 04 02 05 02 06 03 00 03 +1bb0: 01 03 02 03 03 03 04 03 05 03 06 04 00 04 01 04 +1bc0: 02 04 03 04 04 04 05 04 06 05 00 05 01 05 02 05 +1bd0: 03 05 04 05 05 05 06 06 00 06 01 06 02 06 03 06 +1be0: 04 06 05 06 06 07 00 07 01 07 02 07 03 07 04 07 +1bf0: 05 07 06 08 00 08 01 08 02 08 03 08 04 08 05 08 + +1c00: 06 09 00 09 01 09 02 09 03 09 04 09 05 09 06 0a +1c10: 00 0a 01 0a 02 0a 03 0a 04 0a 05 0a 06 0b 00 0b +1c20: 01 09 02 0b 03 0b 04 0b 05 0b 06 0c 00 0c 01 0c +1c30: 02 0c 03 0c 04 0c 05 0c 06 0d 00 00 01 00 02 00 +1c40: 03 00 04 00 05 00 06 08 00 0e 01 0e 02 0e 03 0e +1c50: 04 0e 05 0e 06 0f 00 0f 01 0f 02 0f 03 0f 04 0f +1c60: 05 0f 06 10 00 10 01 10 02 10 03 10 04 10 05 10 +1c70: 06 11 00 11 01 11 02 11 03 11 04 11 05 11 06 12 +1c80: 00 12 01 12 02 12 03 12 04 12 05 12 06 13 00 13 +1c90: 01 13 02 13 03 13 04 13 05 13 06 14 00 14 01 14 +1ca0: 02 14 03 14 04 14 05 14 06 15 00 15 01 15 02 15 +1cb0: 03 15 04 15 05 15 06 16 00 16 01 16 02 16 03 16 +1cc0: 04 16 05 16 06 17 00 17 01 17 02 17 03 17 04 17 +1cd0: 05 17 06 18 00 18 01 18 02 18 03 18 04 18 05 18 +1ce0: 06 19 00 19 01 19 02 19 03 19 04 19 05 19 06 1a +1cf0: 00 1a 01 1a 02 1a 03 1a 04 1a 05 1a 06 1b 00 1b + +1d00: 01 1b 02 1b 03 1b 04 18 05 18 06 1c 00 1c 01 1c +1d10: 02 1c 03 1c 04 1c 05 1c 06 10 00 10 01 10 02 10 +1d20: 03 10 04 10 05 10 06 1e 00 1e 01 1e 02 1f 03 1f +1d30: 04 1e 05 1e 06 1f 00 1f 01 1f 02 1f 03 1f 04 1f +1d40: 05 1f 06 20 00 20 01 20 02 20 03 20 04 20 05 20 +1d50: 06 21 00 21 01 21 02 21 03 21 04 21 05 21 06 22 +1d60: 00 22 01 22 02 22 03 22 04 22 05 22 06 23 00 23 +1d70: 01 23 02 23 03 23 04 23 05 23 06 24 00 24 01 24 +1d80: 02 24 03 24 04 24 05 24 06 25 00 25 01 25 02 25 +1d90: 03 25 04 25 05 25 06 26 00 26 01 26 02 26 03 26 +1da0: 04 26 05 26 06 27 00 27 01 27 02 27 03 27 04 27 +1db0: 05 27 06 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 80 80 80 80 80 +1dc0: 80 80 80 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 80 80 80 80 80 +1dd0: 80 80 80 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 80 80 80 80 80 +1de0: 80 80 80 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 80 80 80 80 80 +1df0: 80 80 80 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 a8 a8 a5 a5 a5 + +1e00: a8 a8 a8 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 a8 a8 a8 a8 a8 +1e10: a5 a8 a8 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 a5 a8 a5 a5 a5 +1e20: a5 a5 a8 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 a8 a5 a8 a8 a8 +1e30: a8 a8 a5 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 d0 00 00 d0 d0 +1e40: d0 d0 d0 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 d0 d0 d0 d0 d0 +1e50: 00 00 00 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 00 d0 dd d0 d0 +1e60: d0 d0 d0 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 d0 d0 d0 d0 d0 +1e70: d0 d0 d0 20 24 28 2c 30 34 38 3c 20 24 28 2c 30 +1e80: 34 38 3c 21 25 29 20 31 35 39 3d 21 25 29 20 31 +1e90: 35 39 30 22 26 2a 26 32 36 3a 3e 22 26 2a 2f 32 +1ea0: 36 3a 3e 23 27 29 2f 33 37 3b 3f 23 27 2b 2f 33 +1eb0: 37 3b 36 20 24 28 2c 30 34 38 3c 20 24 28 2c 30 +1ec0: 34 38 3c 21 25 29 20 31 35 39 3d 21 25 29 20 31 +1ed0: 35 39 3d 22 26 2a 2e 32 36 3a 3e 22 26 2a 26 32 +1ee0: 36 3a 36 23 27 2b 2f 33 37 3b 3f 23 27 2b 2f 33 +1ef0: 37 38 36 20 24 28 2c 30 34 35 3c 20 24 28 2c 30 + +1f00: 34 38 3c 21 25 29 20 31 35 39 3d 21 25 29 2d 31 +1f10: 35 39 3d 22 26 2a 2e 32 36 3a 3e 22 26 2a 2e 32 +1f20: 36 3a 36 23 27 28 2f 33 37 3b 3f 23 27 2b 2f 33 +1f30: 37 38 3f + + + +Listing 3: This shape-editor program forms a shape table +directly from a high-resolution screen image. + +100 TEXT:HOME:POKE-16298,0:POKE-16300,0 +110 RESTORE:FOR I=768 TO 774:READ J:POKE I,J:NEXT I:POKE 232,0:POKE 233,3:DATA1,0,3,0,45,5,0 +120 DIM S%(105),T%(212) +130 XMAX=42:YMAX=35:ML=101:MT=10 +140 H$="0123456789ABCDEF" +150 D$=CHR$(4) +160 GOSUB 3100:GOSUB 3300:GOSUB 3400 +400 REM SHOW CURSOR POSITION ON GRID +410 XDRAW 1 AT CL+1,CT+3 +420 REM WAIT FOR KEYBOARD COMMAND +430 Q=PEEK(-16384):IF Q<128 THEN 430 +440 POKE-16368,0:Q=Q-128 +500 REM +501 REM CURSOR MOVEMENT COMMANDS +502 REM +510 IF Q<>ASC("I") THEN 550 +520 XDRAW 1 AT CL+1,CT+3 +530 IF Y>1 THEN Y=Y-1:CT=CT-4 +540 GOTO 410 +550 IF Q<>ASC("M") THEN 590 +560 XDRAW 1 AT CL+1,CT+3 +570 IF YASC("J") THEN 630 +600 XDRAW 1 AT CL+1,CT+3 +610 IF X>1 THEN X=X-1:CL=CL-4 +620 GOTO 410 +630 IF Q<>ASC("K") THEN 700 +640 XDRAW 1 AT CL+1,CT+3 +650 IF XASC("P") THEN 810 +720 ELE=INT((X-1)/14)+3*(Y-1) +730 BIT=(X-1)-INT((X-1)/14)*14 +740 A=INT(S%(ELE)/2^BIT) +750 IF A/2<>INT(A/2) THEN 810 +760 S%(ELE)=S%(ELE)+2^BIT +770 FOR I=2 TO 4:XDRAW 1 AT CL+1,CT+I:NEXT I +780 HCOLOR=3:HPLOT 29+X,62+Y +790 GOTO 430 +800 REM +801 REM ERASE COMMAND +802 REM +810 IF Q<>ASC("E") THEN 900 +820 ELE=INT((X-1)/14)+3*(Y-1) +830 BIT=(X-1)-INT((X-1)/14)*14 +840 A=INT(S%(ELE)/2^BIT) +850 IF A/2=INT(A/2) THEN 900 +860 S%(ELE)=S%(ELE)-2^BIT +870 FOR I=2 TO 4:XDRAW 1 AT CL+1,CT+I:NEXT I +880 HCOLOR=0:HPLOT 29+X,62+Y +890 GOTO 430 +900 REM +901 REM CLEAR SCREEN COMMAND +902 REM +910 IF Q<>ASC("C") THEN 1030 +920 XDRAW 1 AT CL+1,CT+3 +930 VTAB 23:PRINT"SURE YOU WANT TO ERASE THE SCREEN?" +940 GOSUB 3500 +950 VTAB 22:CALL-958: IF Q<>ASC("Y") THEN 410 +960 FOR I=0 TO 105:S%(1)=0:NEXT I +970 GOSUB 3300:GOSUB 3400:GOTO 410 +1000 REM +1010 REM TABLE COMMAND +1020 REM +1030 IF Q<>ASC("T") THEN 1520 +1040 VTAB 23:PRINT"SET CURSOR TO TOP LEFT CORNER OF":PRINT"DESIRED BIT MAP AND HIT RETURN"; +1050 L5=1 +1060 GOTO 430 +1070 PL=X:PT=Y +1080 VTAB 22: CALL-958:PRINT:PRINT"SET CURSOR TO BOTTOM RIGHT CORNER OF":PRINT"DESIRED BIT MAP AND HIT RETURN"; +1090 L5=2 +1100 GOTO 430 +1110 PR=X:PB=Y:L5=0 +1120 XDRAW 1 AT CL+1,CT+3 +1130 VTAB 22:CALL-958 +1140 IF PL>PR OR PT>PB THEN VTAB 23:HTAB 1:POKE 50,63:PRINT"ILLEGAL BIT MAP CORNERS":POKE 50,255:FOR I=1 TO 2000:NEXT I:VTAB 22:CALL-958:GOTO 410 +1150 VTAB 23:HTAB 1:PRINT"NOW FORMING SHAPE TABLE" +1160 FOR I=0 TO 212:T%(I)=0:NEXT I +1170 L=PB-PT+1:W=(PR-PL+1)/7:IF W<>INT(W) THEN W=INT(W)+1 +1180 T%(0)=L:T%(1)=W:N=2:Q=0 +1190 FOR Y=PT TO PB +1200 FOR X=PL TO PL+W*7-1 +1210 IF X>PR THEN BN=0:GOTO 1250 +1220 ELE=INT((X-1)/14)+3*(Y-1) +1230 BIT=(X-1)-INT((X-1)/14)*14 +1240 BN=0:A=INT(S%(ELE)/2^BIT):IF INT(A/2)<>A/2 THEN BN=1 +1250 IF BN=1 THEN T%(N)=T%(N)+2^Q +1260 Q=Q+1:IF Q=7 THEN Q=0:N=N+1 +1270 NEXT X:NEXT Y +1280 HOME:POKE-16303,0 +1290 VTAB 2:PRINT"DO YOU WANT TO SEE THE TABLE IN HEX":PRINT" OR IN DECIMAL?":PRINT:PRINT +1300 GOSUB 3500 +1310 IF Q<>ASC("D") AND Q<>ASC("H") THEN 1280 +1320 Z=0:FOR I=0 TO L*W+1 +1330 Z=Z+1 +1340 IF Q=ASC("D") THEN PRINT TAB(Z*4);T%(I);:GOTO 1360 +1350 PRINT TAB(Z*3);MID$(H$,INT(T%(1)/16)+1,1);MID$(H$,T%(I)-INT(T%(I)/16)*16+1,1); +1360 IF Z=8 THEN Z=0:PRINT +1370 NEXT I +1380 PRINT:PRINT:IF PEEK(37)<21 THEN POKE 34,PEEK(17) +1390 PRINT"DO YOU WANT TO SAVE THE OBJECT TABLE":PRINT" ON DISK?" +1400 GOSUB 3500 +1410 IF Q<>ASC("Y") THEN 1470 +1420 PRINT:PRINT"WHAT DO YOU WANT TO NAME":INPUT" THE FILE? ";N$ +1430 FOR I=0 TO L*W+1:POKE 16384+I,T%(I):NEXT I +1440 PRINT D$;"BSAVE";N$;",A$4000,L";L*W+2 +1450 PRINT"FILE SAVED USING NAME ";N$ +1460 PRINT:PRINT:GOTO 1390 +1470 POKE 34,0:HOME:VTAB 2:PRINT"DO YOU WANT TO RETURN TO THE":PRINT"SCREEN EDIT MODE?" +1480 GOSUB 3500 +1490 IF Q<>ASC("Y") THEN 2260 +1500 GOSUB 3100:POKE-16304,0:GOSUB 3310:GOTO 410 +1510 REM 'RETURN' PSEUDO-COMMAND +1520 IF Q<>13 THEN 1600 +1530 ON L5+1 GOTO 430,1070,1110 +1600 REM +1601 REM SAVE TABLE COMMAND +1602 REM +1610 IF Q<>ASC("S") THEN 1800 +1620 XDRAW 1 AT CL+1,CT+3 +1630 VTAB 23:INPUT"FILE NAME FOR SAVE? ";N$ +1640 VTAB 24:PRINT"NOW SCANNING IMAGE";:HTAB 1 +1650 Z1=0 +1660 IF S%(Z1)=0 AND Z1<105 THEN Z1=Z1+1:GOTO 1660 +1670 Z2=105 +1680 IF S%(Z2)=0 AND Z2>0 THEN Z2=Z2-1:GOTO 1680 +1690 IF Z1>Z2 THEN Z1=0:Z2=1 +1700 VTAB 24:PRINT"NOW SAVING IMAGE TO DISK";:VTAB 23:PRINT +1710 PRINT D$;"OPEN";N$:PRINT D$;"WRITE";N$ +1720 PRINT Z1:PRINT Z2 +1730 FOR I=Z1 TO Z2 +1740 PRINT S%(I) +1750 NEXT I +1760 PRINT D$;"CLOSE";N$ +1770 VTAB 22:CALL-958:GOTO 410 +1800 REM +1801 REM LOAD TABLE COMMAND +1802 REM +1810 IF Q<>ASC("G") THEN 2100 +1820 XDRAW 1 AT CL+1,CT+3 +1830 VTAB 23:PRINT"SURE YOU WANT TO LOAD?" +1840 GOSUB 3500 +1850 VTAB 22:CALL-958:IF Q<>ASC("Y") THEN 410 +1860 VTAB 23:INPUT"FILE NAME FOR LOAD? ";N$ +1870 PRINT D$;"OPEN"N$:PRINT D$;"READ";N$ +1880 INPUT Z1:INPUT Z2 +1890 FOR I=0 TO Z1:S%(I)=0:NEXT I:FOR I=Z2 TO 105:S%(I)=0:NEXT I +1900 FOR I=Z1 TO Z2 +1910 INPUT S%(I) +1920 NEXT I +1930 PRINT D$;"CLOSE";N% +1940 GOSUB 3300: GOSUB 3400 +1950 VTAB 22:CALL-958:VTAB 23:PRINT"NOW RETRACING IMAGE ON SCREEN" +1960 ELE=Z1:BIT=0:CL=ML+4*((ELE-INT(ELE/3)*3)*14) +1970 CT=MT+4*INT(ELE/3) +1980 A=INT(S%(ELE)/2^BIT): IF INT(A/2)=A/2 THEN 2000 +1990 FOR I=2 TO 4:XDRAW 1 AT CL+1,CT+I:NEXT I:HPLOT 30+(CL-ML)/4,63+(CT-MT)/4 +2000 CL=CL+4:BIT=BIT+1:IF BIT<>14 THEN 1980 +2010 IF ELE>=Z2 THEN GOSUB 3310:GOTO 410 +2020 BIT=0:ELE=ELE+1 +2030 IF ELE/3=INT(ELE/3) THEN CL=ML:CT=CT+4 +2040 GOTO 1980 +2100 REM +2101 REM HELP COMMAND +2102 REM +2110 IF Q<>ASC("H") AND Q<>ASC("/") AND Q<>ASC("?") THEN 2200 +2120 VTAB21:CALL-958:POKE-16303,0 +2130 GOSUB 3170 +2140 POKE-16304,0 +2150 VTAB 20:PRINT:CALL-958:HTAB 2:PRINT"ACTUAL SIZE";:HTAB 21:PRINT"VIEWING WINDOW" +2160 GOTO 430 +2200 REM +2201 REM QUIT OMMAND +2202 REM +2210 IF Q<>ASC("Q") THEN 430 +2220 XDRAW 1 AT CL+1,CT+3 +2230 VTAB 23:PRINT"SURE YOU WANT TO QUIT?" +2240 GOSUB 3500 +2250 IF Q<>ASC("Y") THEN VTAB 22:CALL-958:GOTO 410 +2260 HOME:POKE-16303,0:POKE-16298,0:VTAB 24 +2270 GOTO 9999 +3000 REM +3010 REM SUBROUTINES +3320 REM +3100 HOME +3110 HTAB 15:PRINT"COMMAND MENU":HTAB 15:PRINT"------- ----" +3120 VTAB 4:PRINT"I,J,K,M"; TAB(9);"CURSOR MOVEMENT":PRINT:PRINT"P";TAB(9);"PLOT POINT AT CURSOR POSITION":PRINT +3130 PRINT"E";TAB(9);"ERASE POINT AT CURSOR POSITION":PRINT:PRINT"C";TAB(9);"CLEAR SCREEN":PRINT +3140 PRINT"T";TAB(9);"MAKE SHAPE TABLE":PRINT:PRINT"S";TAB(9);"SAVE SHAPE SOURCE FILE TO DISK":PRINT +3150 PRINT"G";TAB(9);"GET SHAPE SOURCE FILE FROM DISK":PRINT:PRINT"H OR ?";TAB(9);"HELP (RETURN TO THIS MENU)":PRINT +3160 PRINT:PRINT"Q";TAB(9);"QUIT PROGRAM EXECUTION" +3170 VTAB 24:HTAB 10:PRINT"HIT SPACE TO EXIT MENU"; +3180 GOSUB 3500:IF Q<>ASC(" ") THEN 3180 +3190 VTAB 21:CALL-958 +3200 RETURN +3300 POKE 230,32:CALL 62450:HGR:SCALE=1:ROT=0 +3310 PT=YMAX+1:PB=0:PL=XMAX+1:PR=0 +3320 VTAB 20:PRINT:CALL-958:HTAB 2:PRINT"ACTUAL SIZE";:HTAB 21:PRINT"VIEWING WINDOW" +REM 3320 VTAB 21:HTAB 2:PRINT"ACTUAL SIZE";:HTAB 21:PRINT"VIEWING WINDOW";:CALL-958:PRINT +3330 X=INT(XMAX/2):Y=INT(YMAX/2) +3340 MR=ML+XMAX*4:MB=MT+YMAX*4 +3350 CL=ML+(X-1)*4:CT=MT+(Y-1)*4 +3360 RETURN +3400 HCOLOR=3 +3410 FOR I=ML TO MR STEP 4:HPLOT I,MT TO I,MB:NEXT I +3420 FOR I=MT TO MB STEP 4:HPLOT ML,I TO MR,I:NEXT I +3430 RETURN +3500 Q=PEEK(-16384):IF Q<128 THEN 3500 +3510 POKE-16368,0:Q=Q-128 +3520 RETURN +9999 END + + + +Table 1: Summary of parameters that must be set up prior to +calling the shape subroutine: coordinates of upper left +corner of bit picture (1a) and starting address +(hexadecimal) of shape table (1b). + +(1a) + Coordinate 6502 Register + + x low-order byte X + x high-order byte Y + y A + +(1b) + Address Byte Memory Location + + low-order byte EB + high-order byte EC + + + +Photo 1: The command menu that appears at the beginning of +the shape-editor program (listing 3). This menu also appears +whenever the Help key is pressed. + ++----------------------------------------+ +| COMMAND MENU | +| ------- ---- | +| | +|I,J,K,M CURSOR MOVEMENT | +| | +|P PLOT POINT AT CURSOR POSITION | +| | +|E ERASE POINT AT CURSOR POSITION | +| | +|C CLEAR SCREEN | +| | +|T MAKE SHAPE TABLE | +| | +|S SAVE SHAPE SOURCE FILE TO DISK | +| | +|G GET SHAPE SOURCE FILE FROM DISK | +| | +|H OR ? HELP (RETURN TO THIS MENU) | +| | +| | +|Q QUIT PROGRAM EXECUTION | +| | +| | +| HIT SPACE TO EXIT MENU | ++----------------------------------------+ + + + +Photo 2: A view of the screen-edit mode of the shape-editor +program. The figure on the grid is an enlarged view of the +actual-size shape on the left side of the screen. The cursor +is the small horizontal line in a square above the lower +left corner of the displayed shape. + + + +Photo 3: A view of the first step in forming a shape table. +The desired shape is selected by defining a rectangle +enclosing the shape. Here, the user has positioned the +cursor to the correct position to define the upper left +corner of the rectangle. + + + +Photo 4: A view of the screen after the shape-editor program +has formed the shape table for the shape shown in photo 3. + ++----------------------------------------+ +| | +| | +|DO YOU WANT TO SEE THE TABLE IN HEX | +| OR IN DECIMAL? | +| | +| 08 02 70 07 04 88 12 12 | +| 01 29 79 27 01 20 7F 3F | +| 00 04 00 04 00 04 0E 1C | +| | +|DO YOU WANT TO SAVE THE OBJECT TABLE | +| ON DISK? | +| | +|WHAT DO YOU WANT TO NAME | +| THE FILE? | +| | +| | ++----------------------------------------+ + +