Ophis/doc/tutor5.sgm

<chapter id="ch5-link">
  <title>Local variables and memory segments</title>

  <para>
    As mentioned in <xref linkend="ch4-link">, there are better ways
    to handle waiting than just executing vast numbers of NOPs.  The
    Commodore 64 KERNAL library includes a <literal>rdtim</literal>
    routine that returns the uptime of the machine, in
    60<superscript>th</superscript>s of a second, as a 24-bit integer.
    The Commodore 64 programmer's guide available online actually has
    a bug in it, reversing the significance of the A and Y registers.
    The accumulator holds the <emphasis>least</emphasis> significant
    byte, not the most.
  </para>

  <para>
    Here's a first shot at a better delay routine:
  </para>

<programlisting>
.scope
        ; data used by the delay routine
        _tmp:    .byte 0
        _target: .byte 0

delay:  sta _tmp        ; save argument (rdtim destroys it)
        jsr rdtim
        clc
        adc _tmp        ; add current time to get target
        sta _target
*       jsr rdtim
        cmp _target
        bmi -           ; Buzz until target reached
        rts
.scend
</programlisting>

  <para>
    This works, but it eats up two bytes of file space that don't
    really need to be specified.  Also, it's modifying data inside a
    program text area, which isn't good if you're assembling to a ROM
    chip.  (Since the Commodore 64 stores its programs in RAM, it's
    not an issue for us here.)  A slightly better solution is to
    use <literal>.alias</literal> to assign the names to chunks of RAM
    somewhere.  There's a 4K chunk of RAM from $C000 through $CFFF
    between the BASIC ROM and the I/O ROM that should serve our
    purposes nicely.  We can replace the definitions
    of <literal>_tmp</literal> and <literal>_target</literal> with:
  </para>

<programlisting>
        ; data used by the delay routine
        .alias _tmp    $C000
        .alias _target $C001
</programlisting>

  <para>
    This works better, but now we've just added a major bookkeeping
    burden upon ourselves&mdash;we must ensure that no routines step on
    each other.  What we'd really like are two separate program
    counters&mdash;one for the program text, and one for our variable
    space.
  </para>

  <para>
    Ophis lets us do this with the <literal>.text</literal>
    and <literal>.data</literal> commands.
    The <literal>.text</literal> command switches to the program-text
    counter, and the <literal>.data</literal> command switches to the
    variable-data counter.  When Ophis first starts assembling a file,
    it starts in <literal>.text</literal> mode.
  </para>

  <para>
    To reserve space for a variable, use the .space command.  This
    takes the form:

<programlisting>
.space varname size
</programlisting>

    which assigns the name <literal>varname</literal> to the current
    program counter, then advances the program counter by the amount
    specified in <literal>size</literal>.  Nothing is output to the
    final binary as a result of the <literal>.space</literal> command.
  </para>

  <para>
    You may not put in any commands that produce output into
    a <literal>.data</literal> segment.  Generally, all you will be
    using are <literal>.org</literal> and <literal>.space</literal>
    commands.  Ophis will not complain if you
    use <literal>.space</literal> inside a <literal>.text</literal>
    segment, but this is nearly always wrong. Remember,
    both <literal>.org</literal> and <literal>.space</literal> only
    ever alter the way that Ophis computes labels. They do not output
    any bytes, nor do they change where in the output file the bytes
    are actually written.
  </para>

  <para>
    The final version of <literal>delay</literal> looks like this:
  </para>

<programlisting>
; DELAY routine.  Takes values from the Accumulator and pauses
; for that many jiffies (1/60th of a second).
.scope
.data
.space _tmp 1
.space _target 1

.text

delay:  sta _tmp        ; save argument (rdtim destroys it)
        jsr rdtim
        clc
        adc _tmp        ; add current time to get target
        sta _target
*       jsr rdtim
        cmp _target
        bmi -                ; Buzz until target reached
        rts
.scend
</programlisting>

  <para>
    We're not quite done yet, however, because we have to tell the
    data segment where to begin.  (If we don't, it starts at 0, which
    is usually wrong.)  We add a very brief data segment to the top of
    our code:
  </para>

<programlisting>
.data
.org $C000
.text
</programlisting>

  <para>
    This will run.  However, we also ought to make sure that we aren't
    overstepping any boundaries.  Our program text shouldn't run into
    the BASIC chip at $A000, and our data shouldn't run into the I/O
    region at $D000.  The <literal>.checkpc</literal> command lets us
    assert that the program counter hasn't reached a specific point
    yet.  We put, at the end of our code:
  </para>

<programlisting>
.checkpc $A000
.data
.checkpc $D000
</programlisting>

  <para>
    The final program is available as <xref linkend="tutor5-src"
    endterm="tutor5-fname">.  Note that we based this on the
    all-uppercase version from the last section, not any of the
    charmapped versions.
  </para>
</chapter>