# APPENDIX A - EXAMPLE PROGRAMS

This section is intended to supply the reader with utility programs which can be
used to examine and repair diskettes.  These programs are provided in their
source form to serve as examples of the programming necessary to interface
practical programs to DOS.  The reader who does not know assembly language may
also benefit from these programs by entering them from the monitor in their
binary form and saving them to disk for later use.   It should be pointed out
that the use of 16 sector diskettes is assumed, although most of the programs
can be easily modified to work under any version of DOS.  It is recommended
that, until the reader is completely familiar with the operation of these
programs, he would be well advised to use them only on an "expendable" diskette.
None of the programs can physically damage a diskette, but they can, if used
improperly, destroy the data on a diskette, requiring it to be re-INITialized.

Five programs are provided:

DUMP    TRACK DUMP UTILITY

This is an example of how to directly access the disk drive through its I/O
select addresses.  DUMP may be used to dump any given track in its raw,
prenibbilized form, to memory for examination. This can be useful both to
understand how disks are formatted and in diagnosing clobbered diskettes.

ZAP     DISK UPDATE UTILITY

This program is the backbone of any attempt to patch a diskette directory back
together.  It is also useful in examining the structure of files stored on disk
and in applying patches to files or DOS directly.  ZAP allows its user to read,
and optionally write, any sector on a diskette.  As such, it serves as a good
example of a program which calls Read/Write Track/Sector (RWTS).

INIT    REFORMAT A SINGLE TRACK

This program will initialize a single track on a diskette.  Any volume number
($00-$FF) may be specified.  INIT is useful in restoring a track whose sectoring
has been damaged without reinitializing the entire diskette.  DOS 3.3 and 48K is
assumed.

FTS     FIND T/S LISTS UTILITY

FTS may be used when the directory for a diskette has been destroyed.  It
searches every sector on a diskette for what appear to be Track/Sector Lists,
printing the track and sector location of each it finds.  Knowing the locations
of the T/S Lists can help the user patch together a new catalog using ZAP.

COPY    CONVERT FILES

COPY is provided as an example of direct use of the DOS File Manager package
from assembly language.  The program will read an input B-type file and copy its
contents to an output T-type file.  Although it could be used, for example, to
convert files used by the Programma PIE editor for use by the Apple Toolkit
assembler, it is not included as a utility program but rather as an example of
the programming necessary to access the File Manager.

STORING THE PROGRAMS ON DISKETTE

The enterprising programmer may wish to type the source code for each program
into an assembler and assemble the programs onto disk.  The Apple Toolkit
assembler was used to produce the listings presented here, and interested
programmers should consult the documentation for that assembler for more
information on the pseudo-opcodes used.  For the non-assembly language
programmer, the binary object code of each program may be entered from the
monitor using the following procedure.

The assembly language listings consist of columns of information as follows:

        The address of some object code
        The object code which should be stored there
        The statement number
        The statement itself

For example...

0800:20 DC 03  112 COPY    JSR  LOCFPL      FIND PARMLIST

indicates that the binary code "20DC03" should be stored at 0800 and that this
is statement 112.  To enter a program in the monitor, the reader must type in
each address and its corresponding object code.  The following is an example of
how to enter the DUMP program:

CALL -151               (Enter the monitor from BASIC)
0800:20 E3 03
0803:84 00
0805:85 01
0807:A5 02

 ...etc...

0879:85 3F
087B:4C B3 FD
BSAVE DUMP,A$800,L$7E   (Save program to disk)

Note that if a line (such as line 4 in DUMP) has no object bytes associated with
it, it may be ignored.  When the program is to be run...

BLOAD DUMP              (Load program)
CALL -151               (Get into monitor)
02:11 N 800G            (Store track to dump, run program)

The BSAVE commands which must be used with the other programs are:

BSAVE ZAP,A$900,L$6C
BSAVE INIT,A$800,L$89
BSAVE FTS,A$900,L$DC
BSAVE COPY,A$800,L$1EC
DUMP -- TRACK DUMP UTILITY

The DUMP program will dump any track on a diskette in its raw, pre-nibbilized
format, allowing the user to examine the sector address and data fields and the
formatting of the track.  This allows the curious reader to examine his own
diskettes to better understand the concepts presented in the preceeding
chapters.  DUMP may also be used to examine most protected disks to see how they
differ from normal ones and to diagnose diskettes with clobbered sector address
or data fields with the intention of recovering from disk I/O errors.  The DUMP
program serves as an example of direct use of the DISK II hardware from assembly
language, with little or no use of DOS.

To use DUMP, first store the number of the track you wish dumped at location
$02, then begin execution at $800.  DUMP will return to the monitor after
displaying the first part of the track in hexadecimal on the screen.  The entire
track image is stored, starting at $1000.  For example:

CALL -151               (Get into the monitor from BASIC)
BLOAD DUMP              (Load the DUMP program)
 ...Now insert the diskette to be dumped...
02:11 N 800G            (Store a 11 (track 17, the catalog
                         track) in $02, N terminates the store
                         command, go to location $800)

The output might look like this...

1000- D5 AA 96 AA AB AA BB AB   (Start of sector address)
1008- AA AB BA DE AA E8 C0 FF
1010- 9E FF FF FF FF FF D5 AA   (Start of sector data)
1018- AD AE B2 9D AC AE 96 96   (Sector data)
 ...etc...

Quite often, a sector with an I/O error will have only one bit which is in
error, either in the address or data header or in the actual data itself.  A
particularly patient programmer can, using DUMP and perhaps a half hour of hand
"nibbilizing" determine the location of the error and record the data on paper
for later entry via ZAP.  A thorough understanding of Chapter 3 is necessary to
accomplish this feat.

ZAP -- DISK UPDATE UTILITY

The next step up the ladder from DUMP is to access data on the diskette at the
sector level.  The ZAP program allows its user to specify a track and sector to
be read into memory.  The programmer can then make changes in the image of the
sector in memory and subsequently use ZAP to write the modified image back over
the sector on disk.  ZAP is particularly useful when it is necessary to patch up
a damaged directory.  Its use in this regard will be covered in more detail when
FTS is explained.

To use ZAP, store the number of the track and sector you wish to access in $02
and $03 respectively.  Tracks may range from $00 to $22 and sectors from $00 to
$0F.  For example, the Volume Table of Contents (VTOC) for the diskette may be
examined by entering $11 for the track and $00 for the sector.  $04 should be
initialized with either a $01 to indicate that the sector is to be read into
memory, or $02 to ask that memory be written out to the sector.  Other values
for location $04 can produce damaging results ($04 in location $04 will INIT
your diskette!).  When these three memory locations have been set up, begin
execution at $900.  ZAP will read or write the sector into or from the 256 bytes
starting at $800.  For example:

CALL -151               (Get into the monitor from BASIC)
BLOAD ZAP               (Load the ZAP program)
 ...Now insert the diskette to be zapped...
02:11 00 01 N 900G      (Store a 11 (track 17, the catalog
                         track) in $02, a 00 (sector 0) at $03,
                         and a 01 (read) at $04.  N ends the
                         store command and 900G runs ZAP.)

The output might look like this...

0800- 04 11 0F 03 00 00 01 00   (Start of VTOC)
0808- 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
0810- 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
0818- 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
 ...etc...

In the above example, if the byte at offset 3 (the version of DOS which INITed
this diskette) is to be changed, the following would be entered...

803:02                  (Change 03 to 02)
04:02 N 900G            (Change ZAP to write mode and do it)

Note that ZAP will remember the previous values in $02, $03, and $04.

If something is wrong with the sector to be read (an I/O error, perhaps), ZAP
will print an error message of the form:

RC=10

A return code of 10, in this case, means that the diskette was write protected
and a write operation was attempted.  Other error codes are 20 - volume
mismatch, 40 - drive error, and 80 - read error.  Refer to the documentation on
RWTS given in Chapter 6 for more information on these errors.

INIT -- REFORMAT A SINGLE TRACK

Occasionally the sectoring information on a diskette can become damaged so that
one or more sectors can no longer be found by DOS.  To correct this problem
requires that the sector address and data fields be re-formatted for the entire
track thus affected.  INIT can be used to selectively reformat a single track,
thus avoiding a total re-INIT of the diskette.  Before using INIT, the user
should first attempt to write on the suspect sector (using ZAP).  If RWTS
refuses to write to the sector (RC=40), then INIT must be run on the entire
track.  To avoid losing data, all other sectors on the track should be read and
copied to another diskette prior to reformatting.  After INIT is run they can be
copied back to the repaired diskette and data can be written to the previously
damaged sector.

To run INIT, first store the number of the track you wish reformatted at
location $02, the volume number of the disk at location $03, and then begin
execution at $800.  INIT will return to the monitor upon completion.  If the
track can not be formatted for some reason (eg.  physical damage or problems
with the disk drive itself) a return code is printed.  For example:

CALL -151               (Get into the monitor from BASIC)
BLOAD INIT              (Load the INIT program)
 ...Now insert the disk to be INIT-ed...
02:11 FE N 800G         (Store a 11 (track 17, the catalog
                        track) in $02, a volume number of
                        $FE (254) in $03, N terminates the
                        store command, go to location $800)

WARNING: DOS 3.3 must be loaded in the machine before running INIT and a 48K
Apple is assumed.  INIT will not work with other versions of DOS or other memory
sizes.

FTS -- FIND T/S LISTS UTILITY

From time to time one of your diskettes will develop an I/O error smack in the
middle of the catalog track.  When this occurs, any attempt to use the diskette
will result in an I/O ERROR message from DOS.  Generally, when this happens, the
data stored in the files on the diskette is still intact; only the pointers to
the files are gone.  If the data absolutely must be recovered, a knowledgeable
Apple user can reconstruct the catalog from scratch.  Doing this involves first
finding the T/S Lists for each file, and then using ZAP to patch a catalog entry
into track 16 for each file which was found.  FTS is a utility which will scan a
diskette for T/S Lists.  Although it may flag some sectors which are not T/S
Lists as being such, it will never miss a valid T/S List.  Therefore, after
running FTS the programmer must use ZAP to examine each track/sector printed by
FTS to see if it is really a T/S List.  Additionally, FTS will find every T/S
List image on the diskette, even some which were for files which have since been
deleted.  Since it is difficult to determine which files are valid and which are
old deleted files, it is usually necessary to restore all the files and copy
them to another diskette, and later delete the duplicate or unwanted ones.

To run FTS, simply load the program and start execution at $900.  FTS will print
the track and sector number of each sector it finds which bears a resemblance to
a T/S List.  For example:

CALL -151               (Get into the monitor from BASIC)
BLOAD FTS               (Load the FTS program)
 ...Now insert the disk to be scanned...
900G                    (Run the FTS program on this diskette)

The output might look like this...

T=12 S=0F
T=13 S=0F
T=14 S=0D
T=14 S=0F

Here, only four possible files were found.  ZAP should now be used to read track
$12, sector $0F.  At +$0C is the track and sector of the first sector in the
file.  This sector can be read and examined to try to identify the file and its
type.  Usually a BASIC program can be identified, even though it is stored in
tokenized form, from the text strings contained in the PRINT statements.  An
ASCII conversion chart (see page 8 in the APPLE II REFERENCE MANUAL) can be used
to decode these character strings.  Straight T-type files will also contain
ASCII text, with each line separated from the others with $8D (carriage
returns).  B-type files are the hardest to identify, unless the address and
length stored in the first 4 bytes are recognizable.  If you cannot identify the
file, assume it is APPLESOFT BASIC.  If this assumption turns out to be
incorrect, you can always go back and ZAP the file type in the CATALOG to try
something else.  Given below is an example ZAP to the CATALOG to create an entry
for the file whose T/S List is at T=12 S=0F.

CALL -151
BLOAD ZAP
 ...insert disk to be ZAPped...
800:00 N 801<800.8FEM   (Zero sector area of memory)
80B:12 0F 02            (Track 12, Sector 0F, Type-A)
:C1 A0 A0 A0 A0 A0 A0   (Name is "A")
:A0 A0 A0 A0 A0 A0 A0   (fill name out with 29 blanks)
:A0 A0 A0 A0 A0 A0 A0
:A0 A0 A0 A0 A0 A0 A0
:A0 A0
02:11 0F 02 N 900G      (Write new sector image out as
                         first (and only) catalog sector)

The file should immediately be copied to another diskette and then the process
repeated for each T/S List found by FTS until all of the files have been
recovered.  As each file is recovered, it may be RENAMEd to its previous name.
Once all the files have been copied to another disk, and successfully tested,
the damaged disk may be re-INITialized.

COPY -- CONVERT FILES

The COPY program demonstrates the use of the DOS File Manager subroutine package
from assembly language.  COPY will read as input a Binary type file, stripping
off the address and length information, and write the data out as a newly
created Text type file.  The name of the input file is assumed to be "INPUT",
although this could just as easily have been inputted from the keyboard, and the
name of the output file is "OUTPUT".  COPY is a single drive operation, using
the last drive which was referenced.

To run COPY, load it and begin execution at $800:

CALL -151               (Get into the monitor from BASIC)
BLOAD COPY              (Load the COPY program)
 ...Now insert the disk containing INPUT...
900G                    (Run the COPY program)

When COPY finishes, it will return to BASIC.  If any errors occur, the return
code passed back from the File Manager will be printed.  Consult the
documentation on the File Manager parameter list in Chapter 6 for a list of
these return codes.

.nx appendix b