=================
Technical details
=================

All variables are static in memory
----------------------------------

All variables are allocated statically, there is no concept of dynamic heap or stack frames.
Essentially all variables are global (but scoped) and can be accessed and modified anywhere,
but care should be taken of course to avoid unexpected side effects.

Especially when you're dealing with interrupts or re-entrant routines: don't modify variables
that you not own or else you will break stuff.

Variables that are not put into zeropage, will be put into a special 'BSS' section for the assembler.
This section is usually placed at the end of the resulting program but because it only contains empty space
it won't actually increase the size of the resulting program binary.
Prog8 takes care of properly filling this memory area with zeros at program startup and then reinitializes
the subset of variables that have a nonzero initialization value.

Arrays with initialization values are not put into BSS but just occupy a sequence of bytes in
the program memory: their values are not reinitialized at program start.

It is possible to relocate the BSS section using a compiler option
so that more system ram is available for the program code itself.


.. _banking:

ROM/RAM bank selection
----------------------

On certain systems prog8 provides support for managing the ROM or RAM banks that are active.

======= ============================================= ===========
system  get banks (returns byte)                      set banks
======= ============================================= ===========
c64     ``c64.getbanks()``                            ``c64.banks(x)``
c128    ``c128.getbanks()``                           ``c128.banks(x)``
cx16    ``cx16.getrombank()`` , ``cx16.getrambank()`` ``cx16.rombank(x)`` , ``cx16.rambank(x)``
other   N/A                                           N/A
======= ============================================= ===========

Calling a subroutine in another memory bank can be done by using the ``callfar`` or ``callfar2`` builtin functions.

When you are using the routines above, you are doing explicit manual banks control.
However, Prog8 also provides something more sophisticated than this, when dealing with banked subroutines:

External subroutines defined with ``extsub`` can have a non-standard ROM or RAM bank specified as well.
The compiler will then transparently change a call to this routine so that the correct bank is activated
automatically before the normal jump to the subroutine (and switched back on return). The programmer doesn't
have to bother anymore with setting/resetting the banks manually, or having the program crash because
the routine is called in the wrong bank!  You define such a routine by adding ``@bank <bank>``
to the extsub subroutine definition. This specifies the bank number where the subroutine is located in.
You can use a constant bank number 0-255, or a ubyte variable to make it dynamic::

    extsub @bank 10  $C09F = audio_init()
    extsub @bank banknr  $A000 = first_hiram_routine()

When you then call this routine in your program as usual, the compiler will no longer generate a simple JSR instruction to the
routine. Instead it will generate a piece of code that automatically switches the ROM or RAM bank to the
correct value, does the call, and switches the bank back. The exact code will be different for different
compilation targets, and not all targets even have banking or support this. As an example,
on the Commander X16, prog8 will use the JSRFAR kernal routine for this. On the Commodore 128,
a similar call exists (but requires a lot more code to prepare, so beware).
On the Commodore 64 some custom code is also emitted that toggle the banks, retains some registers, and does the call.
Other compilation targets don't have banking or prog8 doesn't yet support automatic bank selection on them.

There's a "banking" example for the Commander X16 that shows a possible application
of the extsub with bank support, check out the `bank example code <https://github.com/irmen/prog8/tree/master/examples/cx16/banking>`_ .


Notice that the symbol for this routine in the assembly source code will still be defined as usual.
The bank number is not translated into assembly (only as a comment)::

	p8s_audio_init = $c09f ; @bank 10

.. caution::
    Calls with automatic bank switching like this are not safe to use from IRQ handlers. Don't use them there.
    Instead change banks in a controlled manual way (or not at all).

.. note::
    On the C64 and C128, the Basic ROM is *banked out* by default when running a Prog8 program, because
    it is not needed. This means on the C64 we get access to another 8Kb of RAM at that
    memory area, which actually gives us a 50 Kb contiguous RAM block from $0801 to $d000 (exclusive).
    This means you can create programs of up to **50 Kb** size with prog8 on the C64.
    On the C128, it means programs can use ~41 Kb of contiguous RAM at $1c00 to $c000 (exclusive).
    However, if your program uses floats, Prog8 *does* need the Basic ROM for the floating point routines,
    and it won't be banked out. Such programs are limited to the regular size of about 38 Kb on the C64, and less on the C128.
    Be aware that the bank setting is only done if you are *not* using ``%option no_sysinit`` because the
    program's bootstrap code is what initializes the memory bank configuration.


.. _symbol-prefixing:

Symbol prefixing in generated Assembly code
-------------------------------------------

*All* symbols in the prog8 program will be prefixed in the generated assembly code:

============ ========
Element type prefix
============ ========
Block        ``p8b_``
Subroutine   ``p8s_``
Variable     ``p8v_``
Constant     ``p8c_``
Label        ``p8l_``
other        ``p8_``
============ ========

This is to avoid naming conflicts with CPU registers, assembly instructions, etc.
So if you're referencing symbols from the prog8 program in inlined assembly code, you have to take
this into account. Stick the proper prefix in front of every symbol name component that you want to reference that is coming
from a prog8 source file.
All elements in scoped names such as ``main.routine.var1`` are prefixed so this becomes ``p8b_main.p8s_routine.p8v_var1``.

.. attention::
    Symbols from library modules are *not* prefixed and can be used
    in assembly code as-is. So you can write::

        %asm {{
            lda  #'a'
            jsr  cbm.CHROUT
        }}


Subroutine Calling Convention
-----------------------------

Calling a subroutine requires three steps:

#. preparing the arguments (if any) and passing them to the routine.
   Numeric types are passed by value (bytes, words, booleans, floats),
   but array types and strings are passed by reference which means as ``uword`` being a pointer to their address in memory.
#. calling the subroutine
#. preparing the return value (if any) and returning that from the call.


Regular subroutines
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

- Each subroutine parameter is represented as a variable scoped to the subroutine. Prog8 doesn't have a call stack.
- The arguments passed in a subroutine call are evaluated by the caller, and then put into those variables by the caller.
  The order of evaluation of subroutine call arguments *is unspecified* and should not be relied upon.
- The subroutine is invoked.
- The return value is not put into a variable, but the subroutine passes it back to the caller via register(s):

  - A byte value will be put in ``A`` .
  - A boolean value will be put in ``A`` too, as 0 or 1.
  - A word value will be put in ``A`` + ``Y`` register pair (lsb in A, msb in Y).
  - A float value will be put in the ``FAC1`` float 'register'.

**Builtin functions can be different:**
some builtin functions are special and won't exactly follow these rules.

**Some arguments will be passed in registers:**
For single byte and word arguments, the values are simply loaded in cpu registers by the caller before calling the subroutine.
*The subroutine itself will take care of putting the values into the parameter variables.* This saves on code size because
otherwise all callers would have to store the values in those variables themselves. The rules for this are as follows:

Single byte parameter: ``sub foo(ubyte bar) { ... }``
   gets bar in the accumulator A, *subroutine* stores it into parameter variable

Two byte parameters: ``sub foo(ubyte bar, ubyte baz) { ... }``
   gets bar in the accumulator A, and baz in Y, *subroutine* stores it into parameter variable

Single word parameter: ``sub foo(uword bar) { ... }``
    gets bar in the register pair A + Y (lsb in A, msb in Y), *subroutine* stores it into parameter variable

Floating point parameter: ``sub foo(float bar) { ... }``
    value for bar gets copied into the parameter variable *by the caller*

Other: ``sub foo(ubyte bar, ubyte baz, ubyte zoo) { ... }``
   register values indeterminate, values all get stored in the parameter variables *by the caller*



``asmsub`` and ``extsub`` routines
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

These are kernal (ROM) routines or low-level assembly routines, that get their arguments via specific registers.
Sometimes even via a processor status flag such as the Carry flag.
Note that word values can be put in a "CPU register pair" such as AY (meaning A+Y registers) but also
in one of the 16 'virtual' 16 bit registers introduced by the Commander X16, R0-R15.
Float values can be put in the FAC1 or FAC2 floating point 'registers'.
The return values also get returned via designated registers, or via processor status flags again.
This means that after calling such a routine you can immediately act on the status
via a special branch instruction such as ``if_z`` or ``if_cs`` etc.
The register/status flag usage is fully specified in the asmsub or extsub signature defintion
for both the parameters and the return values::

    extsub $2000 = extfunction(ubyte arg1 @A, uword arg2 @XY, uword arg3 @R0,
                               float frac @FAC1, bool flag @Pc) -> ubyte @Y, bool @Pz

    asmsub function(ubyte arg1 @A, uword arg2 @XY, uword arg3 @R0,
                    float frac @FAC1, bool flag @Pc) -> ubyte @Y, bool @Pz {
        %asm {{
            ...
            ...
        }}
    }


Compiler Internals
------------------

Here is a diagram of how the compiler translates your program source code into a binary program:

.. image:: prog8compiler.svg

Some notes and references into the compiler's source code modules:

#. The ``compileProgram()`` function (in the ``compiler`` module) does all the coordination and basically drives all of the flow shown in the diagram.
#. ANTLR is a Java parser generator and is used for initial parsing of the source code. (``parser`` module)
#. Most of the compiler and the optimizer operate on the *Compiler AST*. These are complicated
   syntax nodes closely representing the Prog8 program structure. (``compilerAst`` module)
#. For code generation, a much simpler AST has been defined that replaces the *Compiler AST*.
   Most notably, node type information is now baked in. (``codeCore`` module, Pt- classes)
#. An *Intermediate Representation* has been defined that is generated from the intermediate AST. This IR
   is more or less a machine code language for a virtual machine - and indeed this is what the built-in
   prog8 VM will execute if you use the 'virtual' compilation target and use ``-emu`` to launch the VM.
   (``intermediate`` and ``codeGenIntermediate`` modules, and ``virtualmachine`` module for the VM related stuff)
#. The code generator backends all implement a common interface ``ICodeGeneratorBackend`` defined in the ``codeCore`` module.
   Currently they get handed the program Ast, Symboltable and several other things.
   If the code generator wants it can use the ``IRCodeGen`` class from the ``codeGenIntermediate`` module
   to convert the Ast into IR first. The VM target uses this, but the 6502 codegen doesn't right now.


Run-time memory profiling with the X16 emulator
-----------------------------------------------
The X16 emulator has a ``-memorystats`` option that enables it to keep track of memory access count statistics,
and write the accumulated counts to a file on exit.
Prog8 includes a Python script ``profiler.py`` (find it in the "scripts" subdirectory of the source code distribution)
that can cross-reference that file with an assembly listing produced by the compiler with the ``-asmlist`` option.
It then prints the top N lines in your (assembly) program source that perform the most reads and writes,
which you can use to identify possible hot spots/bottlenecks/variables that should be better placed in zeropage etc.
Note that the profiler just works with the number of accesses to memory locations, this is *not* the same
as the most run-time (cpu instructions cycle times aren't taken into account at all).
Here is an example of the output it generates::

    $ scripts/profiler.py -n 10 cobramk3-gfx.list memstats.txt                                                                             ✔

    number of actual lines in the assembly listing: 2134
    number of distinct addresses read from  : 22006
    number of distinct addresses written to : 8179
    total number of reads  : 375106285 (375M)
    total number of writes : 63601962 (63M)

    top 10 most reads:
    $007f (7198687) : $007e 'P8ZP_SCRATCH_W2' (line 13), $007e 'remainder' (line 1855)
    $007e (6990527) : $007e 'P8ZP_SCRATCH_W2' (line 13), $007e 'remainder' (line 1855)
    $0265 (5029230) : unknown
    $007c (4455140) : $007c 'P8ZP_SCRATCH_W1' (line 12), $007c 'dividend' (line 1854), $007c 'result' (line 1856)
    $007d (4275195) : $007c 'P8ZP_SCRATCH_W1' (line 12), $007c 'dividend' (line 1854), $007c 'result' (line 1856)
    $0076 (3374800) : $0076 'label_asm_35_counter' (line 2082)
    $15d7 (3374800) : $15d7 '9c 23 9f               stz  cx16.VERA_DATA0' (line 2022), $15d7 'label_asm_34_repeat' (line 2021)
    $15d8 (3374800) : $15d7 '9c 23 9f               stz  cx16.VERA_DATA0' (line 2022), $15d7 'label_asm_34_repeat' (line 2021)
    $15d9 (3374800) : $15da '9c 23 9f               stz  cx16.VERA_DATA0' (line 2023)
    $15da (3374800) : $15da '9c 23 9f               stz  cx16.VERA_DATA0' (line 2023)

    top 10 most writes:
    $9f23 (14748104) : $9f23 'VERA_DATA0' (line 1451)
    $0265 (5657743) : unknown
    $007e (4464393) : $007e 'P8ZP_SCRATCH_W2' (line 13), $007e 'remainder' (line 1855)
    $007f (4464393) : $007e 'P8ZP_SCRATCH_W2' (line 13), $007e 'remainder' (line 1855)
    $007c (4416537) : $007c 'P8ZP_SCRATCH_W1' (line 12), $007c 'dividend' (line 1854), $007c 'result' (line 1856)
    $007d (3820272) : $007c 'P8ZP_SCRATCH_W1' (line 12), $007c 'dividend' (line 1854), $007c 'result' (line 1856)
    $0076 (3375568) : $0076 'label_asm_35_counter' (line 2082)
    $01e8 (1310425) : cpu stack
    $01e7 (1280140) : cpu stack
    $0264 (1258159) : unknown

Apparently the most cpu activity while running this program is spent in a division routine.
