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658 lines
22 KiB
Plaintext
<!doctype linuxdoc system>
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<article>
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<title>cc65 Compiler Intro
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<author>
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<url url="mailto:uz@cc65.org" name="Ullrich von Bassewitz">,<newline>
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<url url="mailto:cbmnut@hushmail.com" name="CbmNut">,<newline>
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<url url="mailto:greg.king5@verizon.net" name="Greg King">,<newline>
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<url url="mailto:stephan.muehlstrasser@web.de" name="Stephan Mühlstrasser">
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<date>2015-03-07
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<abstract>
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How to use the cc65 C language system -- an introduction.
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</abstract>
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<!-- Table of contents -->
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<toc>
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<!-- Begin the document -->
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<sect>Overview<p>
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This is a short intro of how to use the compiler and the bin-utils. It contains
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a step-by-step example of how to build a complete application from one C and
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one assembly modules. This file does <em/not/ contain a complete reference for
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the tools used in the process. There are separate files describing those tools,
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in detail (see <url url="index.html">).
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I do assume that you have downloaded and installed the compiler and
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target-specific files. Windows users should use the friendly .exe installer
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(named cc65-2.13.0-1.exe for version 2.13.0 of the package - adjust the
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version number if necessary). It does not only install the target files, but
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will also set up necessary environment variables for you.
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If you're going for the .ZIP archives, please note that there is one file for
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the host platform (Windows, DOS or OS/2), one file for each target platform
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(C64 or whatever) and a separate file containing the docs (which include the
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file you're currently reading). So for most uses, you will need at least 3
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files and unpack all three into one directory. In case of the .ZIP archives,
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you will also need to set the environment variables <tt/CC65_INC/,
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<tt/LD65_LIB/ and <tt/LD65_CFG/ as described below.
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<em/Note:/ There is a much simpler way to compile this example, by using the
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<bf/cl65/ compile-and-link utility. However, it makes sense to understand how
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the separate steps work. How to do the example with the <bf/cl65/ utility is
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described <ref id="using-cl65" name="later">.
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<sect1>Before we start<p>
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You will find a copy of the sample modules, used in the next section, in the
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"<tt>cc65/samples/tutorial</tt>" directory. If you encounter problems with
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missing include files and/or libraries, please check the environment variables
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<tt/CC65_INC/, <tt/LD65_LIB/ and <tt/LD65_CFG/. They should point to the
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<tt/include/, <tt/lib/ and <tt/cfg/ subdirectories of the directory, where you
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installed cc65.
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<sect1>The sample modules<p>
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To explain the development flow, I will use the following example modules:
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hello.c:
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<tscreen><code>
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#include <stdio.h>
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#include <stdlib.h>
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extern const char text[]; /* In text.s */
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int main (void)
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{
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printf ("%s\n", text);
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return EXIT_SUCCESS;
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}
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</code></tscreen>
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text.s:
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<tscreen><code>
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.export _text
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_text: .asciiz "Hello world!"
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</code></tscreen>
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<sect1>Translation phases<p>
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We assume that the target file should be named "hello", and the target system
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is the C64.
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<tscreen><verb>
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+---------+
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| hello.c |
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+---------+
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cc65
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\/
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+---------+ +---------+ +---------+
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| hello.s | | text.s | | crt0.o |
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+---------+ +---------+ +---------+
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| | |
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ca65 ca65 ar65
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\/ \/ \/
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+---------+ +---------+ +---------+
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| hello.o | | text.o | | c64.lib |
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+---------+ +---------+ +---------+
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| \ /
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| \ /
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| \ /
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+----------------------->ld65<
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\/
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hello
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</verb></tscreen>
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<tt/crt0.o/ (the startup code) and <tt/c64.lib/ (the C64 version of the runtime
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and C library) are provided in binary form in the cc65 package. Actually, the
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startup code is contained in the library, so you won't need to care about it.
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<sect>The compiler<p>
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The compiler translates one C source into one assembly source, for each
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invocation. It does <em/not/ create object files directly, and it is <em/not/
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able to translate more than one file per run.
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In the example above, we would use the following command line, to translate
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<tt/hello.c/ into <tt/hello.s/:
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<tscreen><verb>
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cc65 -O -t c64 hello.c
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</verb></tscreen>
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The <tt/-O/ switch tells the compiler to do an additional optimizer run, which
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is usually a good idea, since it makes the code smaller. If you don't care
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about the size, but want to have slightly faster code, use <tt/-Oi/ to inline
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some runtime functions.
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The <tt/-t/ switch is followed by the target system name.
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If the compiler does not complain about errors in our "hello world" program, we
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will have a file named "<tt/hello.s/", in our directory, that contains the
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assembly source for the <bf/hello/ module.
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For more information about the compiler, see <url url="cc65.html">.
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<sect>The assembler<p>
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The assembler translates one assembly source into an object file, for each
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invocation. The assembler is <em/not/ able to translate more than one source
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file per run.
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Let's translate the "hello.s" and "text.s" files from our example:
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<tscreen><verb>
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ca65 hello.s
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ca65 -t c64 text.s
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</verb></tscreen>
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The <tt/-t/ switch is needed when translating the <tt/text.s/ file, so the
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text is converted from the input character-set (usually ISO-8859-1) into the
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target character-set (PETSCII, in this example) by the assembler. The
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compiler-generated file <tt/hello.s/ does not contain any character constants,
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so specification of a target is not necessary (it wouldn't do any harm,
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however).
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If the assembler does not complain, we should now have two object files (named
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<tt/hello.o/ and <tt/text.o/) in the current directory.
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For more information about the assembler, see <url url="ca65.html">.
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<sect>The linker<p>
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The linker combines several object and library files into one output file.
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<bf/ld65/ is very configurable, but fortunately has built-in configurations,
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so we don't need to mess with configuration files, here.
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The compiler uses small functions to do things that cannot be done inline
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without a big impact on code size. Those runtime functions, together with the
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C library, are in an object-file archive named after the system, in this case,
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"<tt/c64.lib/". We have to specify that file on the command line, so that the
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linker can resolve those functions.
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Let's link our files to get the final executable:
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<tscreen><verb>
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ld65 -o hello -t c64 hello.o text.o c64.lib
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</verb></tscreen>
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The argument after <tt/-o/ specifies the name of the output file, the argument
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after <tt/-t/ gives the target system. The following arguments are object
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files or libraries. Since the target library resolves imports in <tt/hello.o/
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and <tt/text.o/, it must be specified <em/after/ those files.
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After a successful linker run, we have a file named "<tt/hello/", ready for
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our C64!
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For more information about the linker, see <url url="ld65.html">.
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<sect>The easy way (using the cl65 utility)<label id="using-cl65"><p>
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The <bf/cl65/ utility is able to do all of the steps described above, in just
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one command line, and it has defaults for some options that are very
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well-suited for our example.
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To compile both files into one executable, enter:
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<tscreen><verb>
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cl65 -O hello.c text.s
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</verb></tscreen>
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The <bf/cl65/ utility knows how to translate C files into object files (it will
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call the compiler, and then the assembler). It does know also how to create
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object files from assembly files (it will call only the assembler, for that).
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It knows how to build an executable (it will pass all object files to the
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linker). And finally, it has the C64 as a default target, and will supply the
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correct startup file and runtime library names to the linker, so you don't
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have to care about that.
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The one-liner above should give you a C64 executable named "<tt/hello/" in the
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current directory.
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For more information about the compile & link utility, see <url
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url="cl65.html">.
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<sect>Running The Executable<p>
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<em/Note: this section is incomplete!/
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Depending on the target, cc65 chooses several methods of making a program
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available for execution. Here, we list sample emulators and instructions for
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running the program. Unless noted, similar instructions would also apply to a
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real machine. One word of advice: we suggest you clear the screen at the
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start, and wait for a keypress at the end of your program, as each target
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varies in its start and exit conditions.
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<sect1>Apple
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<sect2>AppleWin<p>
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Available at <url
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url="http://applewin.berlios.de/">:
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Emulates Apple ][/enhanced Apple //e computers, with
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sound, video, joysticks, serial port, and disk images. Includes monitor. Only
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for Windows. The package comes with a DOS 3.3 disk (called "master.dsk") image;
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however, you will need <bf/AppleCommander 1.3.5/ or later (available at <url
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url="http://applecommander.sourceforge.net/">).
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Compile the tutorial with
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<tscreen><verb>
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cl65 -O -t apple2 hello.c text.s
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</verb></tscreen>
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for the Apple ][, or:
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<tscreen><verb>
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cl65 -O -t apple2enh hello.c text.s
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</verb></tscreen>
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for the enhanced Apple //e.
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Then, put the file onto an Apple disk image, for use with an emulator. Copy
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the <tt/master.dsk/ which comes with <bf/AppleWin/, and rename it to
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<tt/cc65.dsk/, then use <bf/AppleCommander/:
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<tscreen><verb>
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java -jar ac.jar -cc65 cc65.dsk test B < hello
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</verb></tscreen>
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Note that a convention in the Apple world is that "hello" is the file which is
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run automatically upon booting a DOS disk, sort of like the "autoexec.bat" of
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the MSDOS/Windows world. We've avoided that in the example, however. Also,
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the <tt/B/ parameter must be in caps., and "test" is the name of the program as
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it will appear on the Apple disk.
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Start the emulator, click on the <bf/Disk 1/ icon, and point to <bf/cc65.dsk/;
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then, click the big Apple logo, to boot the system. Then, type this on the
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Apple:
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<tscreen><verb>
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BRUN TEST
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</verb></tscreen>
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You will see "Hello, World!" appear on the same line. Thanks to
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<url url="mailto:ol.sc@web.de" name="Oliver Schmidt"> for his help
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in completing this section.
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<sect1>Atari
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<sect2>Atari800Win PLus<p>
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Available at <url
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url="http://www.atari.org.pl/PLus/index_us.htm">:
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Emulates Atari 400/800/65XE/130XE/800XL/1200XL/5200, with stereo sound, disk
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images, scanline-exact NTSC/PAL video, joysticks, mouse, cartridges, and RAM
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expansions. Includes monitor. Unfortunately, only for Windows. You will need
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the emulator, "atarixl.rom" or "atariosb.rom"/"ataribas.rom", and "dos25.xfd"
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files (not supplied).
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Compile the tutorial with
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<tscreen><verb>
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cl65 -O -t atari hello.c text.s
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</verb></tscreen>
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Start the emulator, choose <bf/File>Autoboot image/ or <bf/File>Load
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executable/, and point to the "<bf/hello/" executable. It is customary to
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rename executables of that type to "<bf/hello.xex/". The file has a 7-byte
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header meant to be loaded directly from Atari DOS 2/2.5 or compatibles.
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On a real Atari, you would need a disk drive, and Atari DOS 2.5 or compatible.
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Turn on the computer, type
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<tscreen><verb>
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DOS
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</verb></tscreen>
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at the BASIC prompt, then choose <bf/N. CREATE MEM.SAV/,
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then choose <bf/L. BINARY LOAD/, and enter <tt/HELLO/.
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The emulation, also, supports that method. Look at <bf/Atari>Settings/, and
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check <bf/Enable H: Patch for Hard Disk Devices/, then <bf/Atari>Hard
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disks/, and set the path of <bf/H1:/ to your executables directory, then use
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"<bf/H0:HELLO.XEX/" in the above procedure (after pressing <tt/L/), to access
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your harddrive directly.
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<em/Note:/ There is no delay after the program exits, as you are returned
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to the DOS menu. Your C program should wait for a keypress if you want to see
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any output.
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<sect1>Atmos
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<sect2>Oricutron<p>
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Available at <url
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url="http://code.google.com/p/oriculator/">:
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Emulates Oric-1 and Atmos computers, with sound, disk images,
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scanline-exact NTSC/PAL video, and movie export. Includes a monitor.
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Fortunately, for all SDL platforms. You will need just the emulator; all
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ROMs are supplied.
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Compile the tutorial with
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<tscreen><verb>
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cl65 -O -t atmos hello.c text.s -o hello.tap
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</verb></tscreen>
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Start the emulator, choose <bf/F1/ and <bf/Insert tape.../, and point to
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the "<bf/hello.tap/" executable. After it has finished loading, type
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<tscreen><verb>
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RUN
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</verb></tscreen>
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On a real Atmos, you would need a tape drive.
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Turn on the computer, type
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<tscreen><verb>
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CLOAD""
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</verb></tscreen>
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at the BASIC prompt. After it has finished loading, type
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<tscreen><verb>
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RUN
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</verb></tscreen>
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The emulation, also, supports that method.
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<sect1>Commodore
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<sect2>VICE<p>
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Available at <url
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url="http://vice-emu.sourceforge.net/">:
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Emulates Commodore 64/128/VIC-20/PET/CBM II/Plus 4 computers. Supports
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printers, serial port and adapters, stereo sound, disk drives and images, RAM expansions,
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cartridges, ethernet connection, cycle-exact NTSC/PAL video, mice, graphics tablet,
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lightpens, and joysticks. Includes monitor. Runs on MSDOS/PCDOS, Win9x/ME/NT/2000/XP, OS2,
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BeOS x86, Acorn RISC OS, and most Unixes.
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Compile the tutorial with
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<tscreen><verb>
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cl65 -O -t <sys> hello.c text.s
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</verb></tscreen>
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Substitute the name of a Commodore computer for that <tt/<sys>/:
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<itemize>
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<item><tt/c128/
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<item><tt/c16/
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<item><tt/c64/
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<item><tt/cbm510/
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<item><tt/cbm610/
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<item><tt/pet/
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<item><tt/plus4/
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<item><tt/vic20/
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</itemize>
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Start the desired version of the emulator (CBM610 programs run on
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the CBM II [<tt/xcbm2/] emulator).
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In the Windows versions of VICE, choose <bf>File>Autoboot disk/tape
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image...</bf>, choose your executable, and click <bf/OK/.
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In the Unix versions, hold down the mouse's first button. Move the pointer to
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<bf>Smart-attach disk/tape...</bf>, and release the button. Choose your
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executable, and click <bf/Autostart/.
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The file has a 14-byte header which corresponds to a PRG-format BASIC program,
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consisting of a single line, similar to this:
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<tscreen><code>
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1000 sys2061
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</code></tscreen>
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On a real Commodore with attached disk drive, you would type:
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<tscreen><verb>
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LOAD "0:HELLO",8
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</verb></tscreen>
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for VIC-20/C64, or:
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<tscreen><verb>
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DLOAD "HELLO"
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</verb></tscreen>
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on PET/CBM II/C128/C16/Plus 4; then, type
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<tscreen><verb>
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RUN
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</verb></tscreen>
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On a Commodore 128, you can combine those two commands:
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<tscreen><verb>
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RUN "HELLO"
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</verb></tscreen>
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The output will appear on a separate line, and you will be returned to a BASIC
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prompt.
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<sect1>GEOS<p>
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Available at <it/Click Here Software's/ <url
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url="http://cbmfiles.com/geos/index.html" name="GEOS download section">:
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<it><bf/G/raphics <bf/E/nvironment <bf/O/perating <bf/S/ystem.</it>
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It provides a WIMP GUI (Windows, Icons, and Mouse-Pointer Graphical User
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Interface) for Commodore's computer models <bf/64/ and <bf/128/. It can be
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controlled by many different types of input devices:
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<itemize>
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<item>keyboard
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<item>joysticks
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<item>mice
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<item>trackballs
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<item>graphics drawing tablets
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<item>light-pens
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</itemize>
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The tutorial files are different for GEOS. You will find them "next door," in
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"<tt>cc65/samples/geos</tt>"; they are called "<tt/hello1.c/" and
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"<tt/hello1res.grc/".
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Compile the tutorial with
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<tscreen><verb>
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cl65 -t geos-cbm -O -o hello1 hello1res.grc hello1.c
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</verb></tscreen>
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Copy the resulting file "<tt/hello1/" onto a (GEOS-format) disk.
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Boot the GEOS master disk/image.
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<quote>
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When you want to run GEOS in an emulator, you must adjust that emulator so that
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it does a "true drive" emulation. Each emulator has its own way of turning that
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feature on.
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</quote>
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<quote>
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VICE even has different ways that depend on which operating system is running
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the emulator.
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<itemize>
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<item>In Windows, you must click on <bf/Options/ (in an always visible menu).
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Then, you must click on <bf/True drive emulation/.
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<item>In Unix, you must <em/hold down/ the second button on your mouse. Move
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the pointer down to <bf/Drive settings/. Then, move the pointer over to
|
|
<bf/Enable true drive emulation/. (If there is a check-mark in front of
|
|
those words, that feature already is turned on -- then, move the pointer
|
|
off of that menu.) Release the mouse button.
|
|
</itemize>
|
|
</quote>
|
|
|
|
Find the <bf/CONVERT/ program on the boot disk [tap the 6-key; then, you
|
|
should see its icon in the fourth position on the <bf/deskTop/'s directory
|
|
notePad]. Move GEOS's pointer over to <bf/CONVERT/'s icon; double-click
|
|
it to run that program. Click on the <bf/Disk/ icon; put the disk with
|
|
"<tt/hello1/" into the drive; and, click the <bf/OK/ icon. Use the little
|
|
icons under the list of file-names to move through that list until you find
|
|
"<tt/hello1/". Click on it; and then, click on the <bf/Convrt/ icon.
|
|
<bf/CONVERT/ will ask you to confirm that you choose the correct file; click
|
|
<bf/YES/ if you did (or, click <bf/NO/ if you made a mistake). After the
|
|
program has converted "<tt/hello1/" from a CBM file into a GEOS file, it will
|
|
announce what it did -- click on <bf/OK/. <bf/CONVERT/ will show the file list
|
|
again. This time, click on <bf/Quit/.
|
|
|
|
(You might need to put the boot disk back into the drive, in order to reload
|
|
<bf/deskTop/. Then, you must swap back to the disk with the tutorial program
|
|
on it, and click on its disk icon [on the right side of the screen].)
|
|
|
|
Now, you must find <bf/hello1/. Click on the lower left-hand corner of the
|
|
directory notePad. Look at the eight file-positions on each page until you see
|
|
<bf/hello1/. Double-click on its icon.
|
|
|
|
The output is shown in a GEOS dialog box; click <bf/OK/ when you have finished
|
|
reading it.
|
|
|
|
|
|
<sect1>Ohio Scientific Challenger 1P<p>
|
|
The <tt/osic1p/ runtime library returns to the boot prompt when the main()
|
|
program exits. Therefore, the C file in the tutorial must be modified
|
|
slightly, in order to see the results on the screen. Otherwise, the program
|
|
would print the text string, and then jump to the boot prompt, making it
|
|
impossible to see the results of running the tutorial program.
|
|
|
|
In addition to that, the <tt/osic1p/ target does not yet have support for stdio
|
|
functions. Only the functions from the conio library are available.
|
|
|
|
Therefore, modify the "<tt/hello.c/" source file, as follows:
|
|
|
|
<tscreen><code>
|
|
#include <conio.h>
|
|
#include <stdlib.h>
|
|
|
|
extern const char text[]; /* In text.s */
|
|
|
|
int main (void)
|
|
{
|
|
clrscr ();
|
|
cprintf ("%s\r\nPress <RETURN>.\r\n", text);
|
|
cgetc ();
|
|
return EXIT_SUCCESS;
|
|
}
|
|
</code></tscreen>
|
|
|
|
Compile the tutorial with
|
|
|
|
<tscreen><verb>
|
|
cl65 -O -t osic1p -u __BOOT__ -o hello.lod hello.c text.s
|
|
</verb></tscreen>
|
|
|
|
The program is configured for a Challenger 1P computer with, at least, 32 kB
|
|
of RAM. See the <url url="osi.html"
|
|
name="Ohio Scientifc-specific documentation"> for instructions about how to
|
|
compile for other RAM sizes.
|
|
|
|
Plug a cassette player into your C1P computer; or, connect an RS-232 cable
|
|
between your C1P and a PC (set the PC's serial port to 300 Bits Per Second,
|
|
8 data bits, No parity, and 2 stop bits). (Turn on the computers.)
|
|
|
|
Tap the "<bf/BREAK/" key, to display the boot prompt; then, tap the "<tt/M/"
|
|
key, to enter the 65V PROM monitor. Tap the "<tt/L/" key. Either start the
|
|
cassette player (with a tape of the program), or start a transfer of the
|
|
program file "<tt/hello.lod/" from the PC. After a while, you should see the
|
|
following text on the screen:
|
|
|
|
<tscreen><verb>
|
|
Hello world!
|
|
Press <RETURN>.
|
|
</verb></tscreen>
|
|
|
|
(Stop the cassette player.) After hitting the RETURN key, you should see the
|
|
boot prompt again.
|
|
|
|
<sect2>WinOSI<p>
|
|
Available at <url
|
|
url="http://osi.marks-lab.com/#Emulator">:
|
|
|
|
Emulates the Ohio Scientific Challenger computers in different configurations.
|
|
Configure it to emulate a C1P (model 600 board) with 32 kB of RAM.
|
|
|
|
Compile the tutorial with the same command that is used to make the program
|
|
for a real machine.
|
|
|
|
Start the emulator. Tap the "<tt/M/" key, to enter the 65V PROM monitor; then,
|
|
tap the "<tt/L/" key. If you had configured WinOSI to ask for a file when it
|
|
starts to read data from the serial port, then you will see a file dialog box;
|
|
otherwise, you must tap your host keyboard's F10 function key. Select the file
|
|
"<tt/hello.lod/". After a moment, you should see the following text on the
|
|
screen:
|
|
|
|
<tscreen><verb>
|
|
Hello world!
|
|
Press <RETURN>.
|
|
</verb></tscreen>
|
|
|
|
After hitting the RETURN key, you should see the boot prompt again.
|
|
|
|
<sect2>C1Pjs<p>
|
|
Available at <url
|
|
url="http://www.pcjs.org/docs/c1pjs/">:
|
|
|
|
Emulates the Ohio Scientific Challenger 1P computer in different configurations.
|
|
The 32 kB RAM machine that must be used with the default compiler settings is
|
|
<url url="http://www.pcjs.org/devices/c1p/machine/32kb/" name="here">.
|
|
|
|
In addition to cc65, the <bf/srec_cat/ program from <url
|
|
url="http://srecord.sourceforge.net/" name="the SRecord tool collection">
|
|
must be installed. Some Linux distributions also provide srecord directly as
|
|
an installable package.
|
|
|
|
Compile the tutorial with this command line:
|
|
|
|
<tscreen><verb>
|
|
cl65 -O -t osic1p hello.c text.s
|
|
</verb></tscreen>
|
|
|
|
Convert the binary file into a text file that can be loaded via
|
|
the Ohio Scientific 65V PROM monitor, at start address 0x200:
|
|
|
|
<tscreen><verb>
|
|
srec_cat hello -binary -offset 0x200 -o hello.c1p -Ohio_Scientific -execution-start-address=0x200
|
|
</verb></tscreen>
|
|
|
|
Open the URL that points to the 32 kB machine; and, wait until the emulator
|
|
has been loaded. Click on the "<bf/BREAK/" button to display the boot prompt;
|
|
then, press the "<tt/M/" key to enter the 65V PROM monitor. Click the
|
|
"<bf/Browse.../" button; and, select the file "<tt/hello.c1p/" that was
|
|
created as the output of the above invocation of the "<tt/srec_cat/" command.
|
|
Press the "<bf/Load/" button. You should see the following text on the screen:
|
|
|
|
<tscreen><verb>
|
|
Hello world!
|
|
Press <RETURN>.
|
|
</verb></tscreen>
|
|
|
|
After hitting the RETURN key, you should see the boot prompt again.
|
|
|
|
|
|
<sect1>Contributions wanted<p>
|
|
|
|
We need your help! Recommended emulators and instructions for other targets
|
|
are missing. We suggest that you choose emulators with good compatibility.
|
|
Also, being able to run all computers in the target series is good for
|
|
target compatibility testing. A machine-language monitor is almost essential
|
|
for debugging, but a native debugger could be used, as well.
|
|
|
|
Finally, emulators which run on Unix or Windows would help to reach a wider
|
|
audience.
|
|
|
|
</article>
|